Main Page

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  <title>Main Page</title>
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  <revision>
    <id>1</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:37:40Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>First page!</comment>
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO WIKIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Wikipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[English language|English]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-other-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Other areas of Wikipedia}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-sister" style="margin:0.5em; background:#eeeeee; border:1px solid #ddd; color:#222; padding:0.2em 0.4em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; font-family:inherit;"&gt;Wikipedia's sister projects&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-sister-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia's sister projects}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-lang" style="margin:0.5em; background:#efefef; border:1px solid #ddd; color:#222; padding:0.2em 0.4em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; font-family:inherit;"&gt;Wikipedia languages&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia languages}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        INTERWIKI STRAPLINE        --&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Main Page interwikis}}{{noexternallanglinks}}{{#if:{{Wikipedia:Main_Page/Tomorrow}}||}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__</text>
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  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>2</id>
    <parentid>1</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:39:50Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
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    <text bytes="6716" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--        BANNER ACROSS TOP OF PAGE        --&gt;
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[English language|English]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
&lt;ul style="position:absolute; right:-1em; top:50%; margin-top:-2.4em; width:38%; min-width:25em; font-size:95%;"&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
&lt;div id="mp-middle" class="MainPageBG" style="margin-top:4px; border:1px solid #f2cedd; background:#fff5fa; overflow:auto;"&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED PICTURE        --&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-other-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Other areas of Wikipedia}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-sister" style="margin:0.5em; background:#eeeeee; border:1px solid #ddd; color:#222; padding:0.2em 0.4em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; font-family:inherit;"&gt;Wikipedia's sister projects&lt;/h2&gt;
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&lt;div style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia languages}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        INTERWIKI STRAPLINE        --&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Main Page interwikis}}{{noexternallanglinks}}{{#if:{{Wikipedia:Main_Page/Tomorrow}}||}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__</text>
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  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>3</id>
    <parentid>2</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:49:03Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
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    <text bytes="6781" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--        BANNER ACROSS TOP OF PAGE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-topbanner" style="clear:both; position:relative; box-sizing:border-box; width:100%; margin:1.2em 0 6px; min-width:47em; border:1px solid #ddd; background-color:#f9f9f9; color:#000; white-space:nowrap;"&gt;
&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[English language|English]]
[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in Wi Ronoi&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
&lt;ul style="position:absolute; right:-1em; top:50%; margin-top:-2.4em; width:38%; min-width:25em; font-size:95%;"&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
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    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:49:42Z</timestamp>
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&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
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| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
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    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:50:29Z</timestamp>
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
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    <parentid>5</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:51:50Z</timestamp>
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&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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{{Main Page banner}}
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED PICTURE        --&gt;
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    <parentid>6</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T13:54:18Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED PICTURE        --&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-other-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Other areas of Wikipedia}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-sister" style="margin:0.5em; background:#eeeeee; border:1px solid #ddd; color:#222; padding:0.2em 0.4em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; font-family:inherit;"&gt;Wikipedia's sister projects&lt;/h2&gt;
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&lt;div style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia languages}}&lt;/div&gt;
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    <parentid>7</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:00:40Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] that [[Wikipedia:Introduction|anyone can edit]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-other-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Other areas of Wikipedia}}&lt;/div&gt;
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  <revision>
    <id>9</id>
    <parentid>8</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:06:00Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] of Kei.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cef2e0; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|From today's featured article|Featured article &lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-other-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Other areas of Wikipedia}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-sister" style="margin:0.5em; background:#eeeeee; border:1px solid #ddd; color:#222; padding:0.2em 0.4em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; font-family:inherit;"&gt;Wikipedia's sister projects&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-sister-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia's sister projects}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia languages}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
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  <revision>
    <id>10</id>
    <parentid>9</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:19:59Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] of Kei.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED PICTURE        --&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        SECTIONS AT BOTTOM OF PAGE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-other-lower" style="padding-top:4px; padding-bottom:2px; border:1px solid #e2e2e2; overflow:auto; margin-top:4px;"&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-other" style="margin:0.5em; background:#eeeeee; border:1px solid #ddd; color:#222; padding:0.2em 0.4em; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; font-family:inherit;"&gt;Other areas of Wikipedia&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-other-content" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Other areas of Wikipedia}}&lt;/div&gt;


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&lt;div style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia languages}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        INTERWIKI STRAPLINE        --&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Main Page interwikis}}{{noexternallanglinks}}{{#if:{{Wikipedia:Main_Page/Tomorrow}}||}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__</text>
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  <revision>
    <id>11</id>
    <parentid>10</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:20:40Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5576" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--        BANNER ACROSS TOP OF PAGE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-topbanner" style="clear:both; position:relative; box-sizing:border-box; width:100%; margin:1.2em 0 6px; min-width:47em; border:1px solid #ddd; background-color:#f9f9f9; color:#000; white-space:nowrap;"&gt;
&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] of Kei.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
&lt;ul style="position:absolute; right:-1em; top:50%; margin-top:-2.4em; width:38%; min-width:25em; font-size:95%;"&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cef2e0; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|From today's featured article|Featured article &lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
&lt;div id="mp-middle" class="MainPageBG" style="margin-top:4px; border:1px solid #f2cedd; background:#fff5fa; overflow:auto;"&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-bottom"&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfp-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#ddcef2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #afa3bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|Today's featured picture | Featured picture&amp;ensp;&lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        SECTIONS AT BOTTOM OF PAGE        --&gt;

&lt;!--        INTERWIKI STRAPLINE        --&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Main Page interwikis}}{{noexternallanglinks}}{{#if:{{Wikipedia:Main_Page/Tomorrow}}||}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__</text>
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  <revision>
    <id>12</id>
    <parentid>11</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:21:32Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5393" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--        BANNER ACROSS TOP OF PAGE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-topbanner" style="clear:both; position:relative; box-sizing:border-box; width:100%; margin:1.2em 0 6px; min-width:47em; border:1px solid #ddd; background-color:#f9f9f9; color:#000; white-space:nowrap;"&gt;
&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] of Kei.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
&lt;ul style="position:absolute; right:-1em; top:50%; margin-top:-2.4em; width:38%; min-width:25em; font-size:95%;"&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfa-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cef2e0; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3bfb1; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|From today's featured article|Featured article &lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
&lt;div id="mp-middle" class="MainPageBG" style="margin-top:4px; border:1px solid #f2cedd; background:#fff5fa; overflow:auto;"&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;|}}&lt;!-- END CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED PICTURE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-lower" class="MainPageBG" style="margin-top:4px; border:1px solid #ddcef2; background:#faf5ff; overflow:auto;"&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-bottom"&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfp-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#ddcef2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #afa3bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|Today's featured picture | Featured picture&amp;ensp;&lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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  <revision>
    <id>13</id>
    <parentid>12</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:22:09Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] of Kei.&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
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&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
&lt;h2 id="mp-itn-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;In the news&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-itn" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{In the news}}&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-otd-h2" style="clear:both; margin:0.5em; background:#cedff2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #a3b0bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em;"&gt;On this day&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-lower" class="MainPageBG" style="margin-top:4px; border:1px solid #ddcef2; background:#faf5ff; overflow:auto;"&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-bottom"&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfp-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#ddcef2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #afa3bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|Today's featured picture | Featured picture&amp;ensp;&lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-tfp" style="margin:0.1em 0.4em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}}}|{{POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        INTERWIKI STRAPLINE        --&gt;
&lt;/noinclude&gt;__NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__</text>
    <sha1>df10df75e72160a5a1105e72ff9c4ed65e9d3861</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>14</id>
    <parentid>13</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:25:21Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
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    <text bytes="5480" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--        BANNER ACROSS TOP OF PAGE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-topbanner" style="clear:both; position:relative; box-sizing:border-box; width:100%; margin:1.2em 0 6px; min-width:47em; border:1px solid #ddd; background-color:#f9f9f9; color:#000; white-space:nowrap;"&gt;
&lt;!--        "WELCOME TO KEIPEDIA" AND ARTICLE COUNT        --&gt;
&lt;div style="margin:0.4em; width:22em; text-align:center;"&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:162%; padding:.1em;"&gt;Welcome to [[Keipedia]],&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style="font-size:95%;"&gt;the [[free content|free]] [[encyclopedia]] of [[Kei]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in [[Ronoi language|Wi Ronoi]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id="articlecount" style="font-size:85%;"&gt;[[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--        PORTAL LIST ON RIGHT-HAND SIDE        --&gt;
&lt;ul style="position:absolute; right:-1em; top:50%; margin-top:-2.4em; width:38%; min-width:25em; font-size:95%;"&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Arts|Arts]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Biography|Biography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:0; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Geography|Geography]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:History|History]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Mathematics|Mathematics]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:33%; top:3.2em;"&gt;[[Portal:Science|Science]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:0;"&gt;[[Portal:Society|Society]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:1.6em;"&gt;[[Portal:Technology|Technology]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li style="position:absolute; left:66%; top:3.2em;"&gt;&lt;strong&gt;[[Wikipedia:Contents/Portals|All portals]]&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED CONTENT        --&gt;
{| role="presentation" id="mp-upper" style="width: 100%; margin-top:4px; border-spacing: 0px;"
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED ARTICLE; DID YOU KNOW        --&gt;
| id="mp-left" class="MainPageBG" style="width:55%; border:1px solid #cef2e0; padding:0; background:#f5fffa; vertical-align:top; color:#000;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-tfa" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em;"&gt;{{#ifexpr:{{formatnum:{{PAGESIZE:Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|R}}&gt;150|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured article/{{#time:F j, Y|-1 day}}}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div id="mp-dyk" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Did you know}}&lt;/div&gt;
| style="border:1px solid transparent;"|
&lt;!--        IN THE NEWS and ON THIS DAY        --&gt;
| id="mp-right" class="MainPageBG" style="width:45%; border:1px solid #cedff2; padding:0; background:#f5faff; vertical-align:top;"|
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&lt;div id="mp-otd" style="padding:0.1em 0.6em 0.5em;"&gt;{{Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/{{#time:F j}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED LIST        --&gt;&lt;!-- CONDITIONAL SHOW --&gt;{{#switch:{{CURRENTDAYNAME}}|Monday|Friday=
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&lt;div id="mp-tfl" style="padding:0.3em 0.7em;"&gt;{{#ifexist:Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}|{{Wikipedia:Today's featured list/{{#time:F j, Y}}}}|{{TFLempty}}}}&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;!--        TODAY'S FEATURED PICTURE        --&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-lower" class="MainPageBG" style="margin-top:4px; border:1px solid #ddcef2; background:#faf5ff; overflow:auto;"&gt;
&lt;div id="mp-bottom"&gt;
&lt;h2 id="mp-tfp-h2" style="margin:0.5em; background:#ddcef2; font-family:inherit; font-size:120%; font-weight:bold; border:1px solid #afa3bf; color:#000; padding:0.2em 0.4em"&gt;{{#ifexist:Template:POTD protected/{{#time:Y-m-d}}|Today's featured picture | Featured picture&amp;ensp;&lt;span style="font-size:85%; font-weight:normal;"&gt;(Check back later for today's.)&lt;/span&gt;}}&lt;/h2&gt;
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<page arvcontinue="">
  <title>Kei</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>2</id>
  <revision>
    <id>15</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:27:12Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "{{about|the planet|its human aspects|World|other uses|Earth (disambiguation)|and|Planet Earth (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi|small=yes}} {{Featured article}} {{Short description..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="175072" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the planet|its human aspects|World|other uses|Earth (disambiguation)|and|Planet Earth (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Short description|Second planet from the Sun in the Solar System}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}

{{Infobox planet
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This infobox has been formatted in the same way as those for other Solar System
  planets and bodies, so please do not change it without discussion on the talkpage.
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Kei
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="[[The Blue Marble]]" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''[[The Blue Marble]]'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''[[Terra]]''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=climate_zones&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archivedate=8 August 2010 |title=Climate Zones |publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cmp134_3&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s004100050465 |title=Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada |year=1999 |last1=Bowring |first1=Samuel A. |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |last2=Williams |first2=Ian S. |bibcode=1999CoMP..134....3B|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24bc524387ca13bebf454dc7702bba691c9ceed7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Connors&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Connors |first1=Martin |last2=Wiegert |first2=Paul |last3=Veillet |first3=Christian |title=Earth's Trojan asteroid |date=27 July 2011 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=475 |pages=481–83 |doi=10.1038/nature10233 |issue=7357 |bibcode=2011Natur.475..481C |pmid=21796207|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40423295d55c5d85b8f8ef86307733faff658cb2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cordoba2004&gt;{{cite web |first1=S. Sanz Fernández |last1=de Córdoba |date=21 June 2004 |url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115223732/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archivedate=15 January 2010 |title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale |accessdate=21 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Cox2000"&gt;{{cite book |editor=Arthur N. Cox |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA244 |edition=4th |date=2000 |publisher=AIP Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |page=244 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Apollo13History"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_13a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 13 The Seventh Mission: The Third Lunar Landing Attempt 11 April–17 April 1970 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=7 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010&gt;{{cite book |last1=de Pater |first1=Imke |last2=Lissauer |first2=Jack J. |title=Planetary Sciences |page=154 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85371-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=dole1970&gt;{{cite book |first1=Stephen H. |last1=Dole |date=1970 |title=Habitable Planets for Man |edition=2nd |publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Co |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R414/ |accessdate=11 March 2007 |isbn=978-0-444-00092-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=duennebier1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Duennebier |first1=Fred |date=12 August 1999 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/plate-tectonics2.html |title=Pacific Plate Motion |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=Dutch2002&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dutch |first1=S. I. |year=2002 |title=Religion as belief versus religion as fact |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=137–44 |url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Dutch_v50n2p137.pdf |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |title=Earth Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=16 March 2017 |accessdate=26 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=edis2003&gt;{{cite book |first1=Taner |last1=Edis |date=2003 |title=A World Designed by God: Science and Creationism in Contemporary Islam |publisher=Amherst: Prometheus |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030608143431/http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |url=http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |archivedate=8 June 2003 |isbn=1-59102-064-6 |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=ellis2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=Lee |last1=Ellis |date=2004 |title=Who's who of NASA Astronauts |publisher=Americana Group Publishing |isbn=978-0-9667961-4-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoofnasaast0000elli }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epsl121_1&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vlaar |first1=N |last2=Vankeken |first2=P. |last3=Vandenberg |first3=A. |title=Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle |year=1994 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=121 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(94)90028-0 |url=http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |bibcode=1994E&amp;PSL.121....1V |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319181621/http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |archivedate=19 March 2012 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fisher19960205&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Rick |date=5 February 1996 |url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html |title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Richard |date=16 February 2006 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/node69.html |title=MHD dynamo theory |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=27 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=frye1983&gt;{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=Roland Mushat |date=1983 |title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science |publisher=Scribner's |isbn=0-684-17993-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97&gt;{{cite web |last1=Geerts |first1=B. |last2=Linacre |first2=E. |url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html |title=The height of the tropopause |date=November 1997 |work=Resources in Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of Wyoming |accessdate=10 August 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=David |title=Chimborazo and the old kilogram |journal=The Lancet |date=5 March 2005 |volume=365 |issue=9462 |pages=831–32 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71021-7 |pmid=15752514|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/046472d8f08b476163d09a743aab3db64b9e9cbe }}&lt;/ref&gt;

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}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
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{{Infobox planet
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This infobox has been formatted in the same way as those for other Solar System
  planets and bodies, so please do not change it without discussion on the talkpage.
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Kei
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="[[The Blue Marble]]" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''[[The Blue Marble]]'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''[[Terra]]''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="heat loss"&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/JB086iB12p11535 |title=Oceans and Continents: Similarities and Differences in the Mechanisms of Heat Loss |year=1981 |last1=Sclater |first1=John G |last2=Parsons |first2=Barry |last3=Jaupart |first3=Claude |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=86 |issue=B12 |page=11535 |bibcode=1981JGR....8611535S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=seligman2008&gt;{{cite web |first1=Courtney |last1=Seligman |year=2008 |url=http://cseligman.com/text/planets/innerstructure.htm |title=The Structure of the Terrestrial Planets |work=Online Astronomy eText Table of Contents |publisher=cseligman.com |accessdate=28 February 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005&gt;{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Shayler |first2=Bert |last2=Vis |date=2005 |title=Russia's Cosmonauts: Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center |publisher=Birkhäuser |isbn=978-0-387-21894-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=stern2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Stern |first1=David P. |date=8 July 2005 |url=http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wmap.html |title=Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="sun_future"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sackmann |first1=I.-J. |last2=Boothroyd |first2=A. I. |last3=Kraemer |first3=K. E. |title=Our Sun. III. Present and Future |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1993 |volume=418 |pages=457–68 |doi=10.1086/173407 |bibcode=1993ApJ...418..457S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder"&gt;{{cite journal |first1=K.-P. |last1=Schröder |last2=Connon Smith |first2=Robert |year=2008 |title=Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |arxiv=0801.4031 |volume=386 |issue=1 |pages=155–63 |bibcode=2008MNRAS.386..155S}}&lt;br /&gt;See also {{cite news |first=Jason |last=Palmer |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415105707/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archivedate=15 April 2012 |title=Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death |date=22 February 2008 |work=NewScientist.com news service |accessdate=24 March 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tall_tales&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments/s1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=29 December 2008 |date=15 April 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |last1=Tanimoto |first1=Toshiro |editor=Thomas J. Ahrens |date=1995 |chapter=Crustal Structure of the Earth |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016194153/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 February 2007 |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tp322_19&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00055-X |title=Early formation and long-term stability of continents resulting from decompression melting in a convecting mantle |year=2000 |last1=De Smet |first1=J. |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=322 |issue=1–2 |pages=19–33 |bibcode=2000Tectp.322...19D |last2=Van Den Berg |first2=A.P. |last3=Vlaar |first3=N.J. |hdl=1874/1653 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/1653/1/desmet_etal_00.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |page=137 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="turcotte"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |pages=136–37 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Turner1990"&gt;{{cite book |first1=B. L., II |last1=Turner |title=The Earth As Transformed by Human Action: Global And Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300 Years |publisher=CUP Archive |page=164 |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-36357-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GI0AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA164}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ucs&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database |title=UCS Satellite Database |work=Nuclear Weapons &amp; Global Security |publisher=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]] |date=10 August 2018 |accessdate=27 September 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un_int_law&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/law/ |title=International Law |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=27 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231055149/http://www.un.org/law/ |archivedate=31 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archivedate=5 September 2009 |title=World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un20070202&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=2 February 2007 |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |title=Evidence is now 'unequivocal' that humans are causing global warming&amp;nbsp;– UN report |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221031717/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |archivedate=21 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>a0ffb44a9a71ed0e23297fa4ce29f0dd7562e0aa</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>19</id>
    <parentid>18</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:34:50Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="175029" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the planet|its human aspects|World|other uses|Earth (disambiguation)|and|Planet Earth (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|Second planet from the Sun in the Solar System}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}

{{Infobox planet
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This infobox has been formatted in the same way as those for other Solar System
  planets and bodies, so please do not change it without discussion on the talkpage.
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Kei
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="[[The Blue Marble]]" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''[[The Blue Marble]]'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''[[Terra]]''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=climate_zones&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archivedate=8 August 2010 |title=Climate Zones |publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cmp134_3&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s004100050465 |title=Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada |year=1999 |last1=Bowring |first1=Samuel A. |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |last2=Williams |first2=Ian S. |bibcode=1999CoMP..134....3B|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24bc524387ca13bebf454dc7702bba691c9ceed7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Connors&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Connors |first1=Martin |last2=Wiegert |first2=Paul |last3=Veillet |first3=Christian |title=Earth's Trojan asteroid |date=27 July 2011 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=475 |pages=481–83 |doi=10.1038/nature10233 |issue=7357 |bibcode=2011Natur.475..481C |pmid=21796207|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40423295d55c5d85b8f8ef86307733faff658cb2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cordoba2004&gt;{{cite web |first1=S. Sanz Fernández |last1=de Córdoba |date=21 June 2004 |url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115223732/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archivedate=15 January 2010 |title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale |accessdate=21 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Cox2000"&gt;{{cite book |editor=Arthur N. Cox |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA244 |edition=4th |date=2000 |publisher=AIP Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |page=244 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Apollo13History"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_13a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 13 The Seventh Mission: The Third Lunar Landing Attempt 11 April–17 April 1970 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=7 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010&gt;{{cite book |last1=de Pater |first1=Imke |last2=Lissauer |first2=Jack J. |title=Planetary Sciences |page=154 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85371-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=dole1970&gt;{{cite book |first1=Stephen H. |last1=Dole |date=1970 |title=Habitable Planets for Man |edition=2nd |publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Co |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R414/ |accessdate=11 March 2007 |isbn=978-0-444-00092-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=duennebier1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Duennebier |first1=Fred |date=12 August 1999 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/plate-tectonics2.html |title=Pacific Plate Motion |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |title=Earth Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=16 March 2017 |accessdate=26 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name=epsl121_1&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vlaar |first1=N |last2=Vankeken |first2=P. |last3=Vandenberg |first3=A. |title=Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle |year=1994 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=121 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(94)90028-0 |url=http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |bibcode=1994E&amp;PSL.121....1V |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319181621/http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |archivedate=19 March 2012 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fisher19960205&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Rick |date=5 February 1996 |url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html |title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Richard |date=16 February 2006 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/node69.html |title=MHD dynamo theory |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=27 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name=frye1983&gt;{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=Roland Mushat |date=1983 |title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science |publisher=Scribner's |isbn=0-684-17993-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97&gt;{{cite web |last1=Geerts |first1=B. |last2=Linacre |first2=E. |url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html |title=The height of the tropopause |date=November 1997 |work=Resources in Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of Wyoming |accessdate=10 August 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gps_time_series&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/mbh/series.html |title=GPS Time Series |publisher=NASA JPL |accessdate=2 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002"&gt;{{cite book |first1=Roy M. |last1=Harrison |authorlink1=Roy M. Harrison |last2=Hester |first2=Ronald E. |date=2002 |title=Causes and Environmental Implications of Increased UV-B Radiation |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |isbn=978-0-85404-265-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hbcp2000&gt;{{cite book |author=Various |editor=David R. Lide |date=2000 |title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |edition=81st |publisher=CRC |isbn=978-0-8493-0481-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="heat loss"&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/JB086iB12p11535 |title=Oceans and Continents: Similarities and Differences in the Mechanisms of Heat Loss |year=1981 |last1=Sclater |first1=John G |last2=Parsons |first2=Barry |last3=Jaupart |first3=Claude |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=86 |issue=B12 |page=11535 |bibcode=1981JGR....8611535S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bounama |first1=Christine |year=2001 |last2=Franck |first2=S. |last3=Von Bloh |first3=W. |title=The fate of Earth's ocean |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=569–75 |doi=10.5194/hess-5-569-2001 |bibcode=2001HESS....5..569B}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hessd4_439&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M. C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B. L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T. A. |title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions |year=2007 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=439–73 |doi=10.5194/hessd-4-439-2007 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00298818/file/hessd-4-439-2007.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle&gt;{{cite web |author=Various |date=21 July 1997 |url=http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/home.rxml |title=The Hydrologic Cycle |publisher=University of Illinois |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes23_799&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(03)00134-2 |title=Continental crustal growth and the supercontinental cycle: evidence from the Central Asian Orogenic Belt |year=2004 |last1=Hong |first1=D. |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=799–813 |bibcode=2004JAESc..23..799H |last2=Zhang |first2=Jisheng |last3=Wang |first3=Tao |last4=Wang |first4=Shiguang |last5=Xie |first5=Xilin}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Berkner |first1=L. V. |last2=Marshall |first2=L. C. |title=On the Origin and Rise of Oxygen Concentration in the Earth's Atmosphere |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=225–61 |bibcode=1965JAtS...22..225B |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022&lt;0225:OTOARO&gt;2.0.CO;2 |year=1965}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=S. C. |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M. |title=The Aeronomy of Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of the Earth |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=1118–36 |bibcode=1974JAtS...31.1118L |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031&lt;1118:TAOHIT&gt;2.0.CO;2 |year=1974}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jessey&gt;{{cite web |last1=Jessey |first1=David |url=http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703170212/http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html |archivedate=3 July 2007 |title=Weathering and Sedimentary Rocks |publisher=Cal Poly Pomona |accessdate=20 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pollack |first1=Henry N. |last2=Hurter |first2=Suzanne J. |last3=Johnson |first3=Jeffrey R. |title=Heat flow from the Earth's interior: Analysis of the global data set |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=267–80 |date=August 1993 |doi=10.1029/93RG01249 |bibcode=1993RvGeo..31..267P}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name=jge53_3_319&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=M. R. |year=2005 |title=Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=53 |issue=3 |page=319 |url=http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=kennedy1989&gt;{{cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Kennedy |authorlink1=Paul Kennedy |date=1989 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers |edition=1st |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-679-72019-5|title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kennish2001&gt;{{cite book |first1=Michael J. |last1=Kennish |date=2001 |title=Practical handbook of marine science |page=35 |edition=3rd |publisher=CRC Press |series=Marine science series |isbn=978-0-8493-2391-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kinver20091210&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8406839.stm |title=Global average temperature may hit record level in 2010 |last1=Kinver |first1=Mark |date=10 December 2009 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=22 April 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kious |first1=W. J. |last2=Tilling |first2=R. I. |date=5 May 1999 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html |title=Understanding plate motions |publisher=USGS |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kirschvink |first1=J. L. |editor1=Schopf, J.W. |editor2=Klein, C. |editor3=Des Maris, D. |date=1992 |title=Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: the Snowball Earth |series=The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study |pages=51–52 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-36615-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="moran2005"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Moran |first1=Joseph M. |year=2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213184908/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archivedate=13 December 2010 |title=Weather |work=World Book Online Reference Center |publisher=NASA/World Book, Inc |accessdate=17 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder"&gt;{{cite journal |first1=K.-P. |last1=Schröder |last2=Connon Smith |first2=Robert |year=2008 |title=Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |arxiv=0801.4031 |volume=386 |issue=1 |pages=155–63 |bibcode=2008MNRAS.386..155S}}&lt;br /&gt;See also {{cite news |first=Jason |last=Palmer |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415105707/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archivedate=15 April 2012 |title=Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death |date=22 February 2008 |work=NewScientist.com news service |accessdate=24 March 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tall_tales&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments/s1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=29 December 2008 |date=15 April 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |last1=Tanimoto |first1=Toshiro |editor=Thomas J. Ahrens |date=1995 |chapter=Crustal Structure of the Earth |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016194153/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 February 2007 |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tp322_19&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00055-X |title=Early formation and long-term stability of continents resulting from decompression melting in a convecting mantle |year=2000 |last1=De Smet |first1=J. |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=322 |issue=1–2 |pages=19–33 |bibcode=2000Tectp.322...19D |last2=Van Den Berg |first2=A.P. |last3=Vlaar |first3=N.J. |hdl=1874/1653 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/1653/1/desmet_etal_00.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |page=137 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="turcotte"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |pages=136–37 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Turner1990"&gt;{{cite book |first1=B. L., II |last1=Turner |title=The Earth As Transformed by Human Action: Global And Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300 Years |publisher=CUP Archive |page=164 |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-36357-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GI0AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA164}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ucs&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database |title=UCS Satellite Database |work=Nuclear Weapons &amp; Global Security |publisher=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]] |date=10 August 2018 |accessdate=27 September 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un_int_law&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/law/ |title=International Law |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=27 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231055149/http://www.un.org/law/ |archivedate=31 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archivedate=5 September 2009 |title=World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un20070202&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=2 February 2007 |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |title=Evidence is now 'unequivocal' that humans are causing global warming&amp;nbsp;– UN report |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221031717/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |archivedate=21 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>ccb128e583f26a7c4a7423cedfb05f107c7a853d</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>20</id>
    <parentid>19</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:35:09Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="175072" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the planet|its human aspects|World|other uses|Earth (disambiguation)|and|Planet Earth (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|Second planet from the Sun in the Solar System}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}

{{Infobox planet
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This infobox has been formatted in the same way as those for other Solar System
  planets and bodies, so please do not change it without discussion on the talkpage.
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Kei
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="[[The Blue Marble]]" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''[[The Blue Marble]]'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''[[Terra]]''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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---&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=David |title=Chimborazo and the old kilogram |journal=The Lancet |date=5 March 2005 |volume=365 |issue=9462 |pages=831–32 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71021-7 |pmid=15752514|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/046472d8f08b476163d09a743aab3db64b9e9cbe }}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=michon2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=Michon |date=24 April 2006 |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/HeatBucket/ |title=Earth's Big heat Bucket |publisher=NASA Earth Observatory |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=1 September 2004 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |title=Moon Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="moran2005"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Moran |first1=Joseph M. |year=2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213184908/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archivedate=13 December 2010 |title=Weather |work=World Book Online Reference Center |publisher=NASA/World Book, Inc |accessdate=17 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>aa606d478b8480fbaae0dabd8f49651b7ebf5f2e</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>21</id>
    <parentid>20</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:36:04Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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    <model>wikitext</model>
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    <text bytes="175073" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the planet|its human aspects|World|other uses|Earth (disambiguation)|and|Planet Earth (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Short description|Third planet from the Sun in the Solar System}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}

{{Infobox planet
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This infobox has been formatted in the same way as those for other Solar System
  planets and bodies, so please do not change it without discussion on the talkpage.
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Earth
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="[[The Blue Marble]]" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''[[The Blue Marble]]'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''[[Terra]]''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=climate_zones&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archivedate=8 August 2010 |title=Climate Zones |publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cmp134_3&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s004100050465 |title=Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada |year=1999 |last1=Bowring |first1=Samuel A. |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |last2=Williams |first2=Ian S. |bibcode=1999CoMP..134....3B|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24bc524387ca13bebf454dc7702bba691c9ceed7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Connors&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Connors |first1=Martin |last2=Wiegert |first2=Paul |last3=Veillet |first3=Christian |title=Earth's Trojan asteroid |date=27 July 2011 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=475 |pages=481–83 |doi=10.1038/nature10233 |issue=7357 |bibcode=2011Natur.475..481C |pmid=21796207|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40423295d55c5d85b8f8ef86307733faff658cb2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cordoba2004&gt;{{cite web |first1=S. Sanz Fernández |last1=de Córdoba |date=21 June 2004 |url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115223732/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archivedate=15 January 2010 |title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale |accessdate=21 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Cox2000"&gt;{{cite book |editor=Arthur N. Cox |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA244 |edition=4th |date=2000 |publisher=AIP Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |page=244 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Apollo13History"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_13a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 13 The Seventh Mission: The Third Lunar Landing Attempt 11 April–17 April 1970 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=7 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010&gt;{{cite book |last1=de Pater |first1=Imke |last2=Lissauer |first2=Jack J. |title=Planetary Sciences |page=154 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85371-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=dole1970&gt;{{cite book |first1=Stephen H. |last1=Dole |date=1970 |title=Habitable Planets for Man |edition=2nd |publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Co |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R414/ |accessdate=11 March 2007 |isbn=978-0-444-00092-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=duennebier1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Duennebier |first1=Fred |date=12 August 1999 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/plate-tectonics2.html |title=Pacific Plate Motion |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=Dutch2002&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dutch |first1=S. I. |year=2002 |title=Religion as belief versus religion as fact |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=137–44 |url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Dutch_v50n2p137.pdf |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |title=Earth Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=16 March 2017 |accessdate=26 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=edis2003&gt;{{cite book |first1=Taner |last1=Edis |date=2003 |title=A World Designed by God: Science and Creationism in Contemporary Islam |publisher=Amherst: Prometheus |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030608143431/http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |url=http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |archivedate=8 June 2003 |isbn=1-59102-064-6 |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=ellis2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=Lee |last1=Ellis |date=2004 |title=Who's who of NASA Astronauts |publisher=Americana Group Publishing |isbn=978-0-9667961-4-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoofnasaast0000elli }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epsl121_1&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vlaar |first1=N |last2=Vankeken |first2=P. |last3=Vandenberg |first3=A. |title=Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle |year=1994 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=121 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(94)90028-0 |url=http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |bibcode=1994E&amp;PSL.121....1V |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319181621/http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |archivedate=19 March 2012 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fisher19960205&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Rick |date=5 February 1996 |url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html |title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Richard |date=16 February 2006 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/node69.html |title=MHD dynamo theory |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=27 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=frye1983&gt;{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=Roland Mushat |date=1983 |title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science |publisher=Scribner's |isbn=0-684-17993-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97&gt;{{cite web |last1=Geerts |first1=B. |last2=Linacre |first2=E. |url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html |title=The height of the tropopause |date=November 1997 |work=Resources in Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of Wyoming |accessdate=10 August 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=David |title=Chimborazo and the old kilogram |journal=The Lancet |date=5 March 2005 |volume=365 |issue=9462 |pages=831–32 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71021-7 |pmid=15752514|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/046472d8f08b476163d09a743aab3db64b9e9cbe }}&lt;/ref&gt;

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}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
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[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
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'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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---&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=David |title=Chimborazo and the old kilogram |journal=The Lancet |date=5 March 2005 |volume=365 |issue=9462 |pages=831–32 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71021-7 |pmid=15752514|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/046472d8f08b476163d09a743aab3db64b9e9cbe }}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=michon2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=Michon |date=24 April 2006 |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/HeatBucket/ |title=Earth's Big heat Bucket |publisher=NASA Earth Observatory |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=1 September 2004 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |title=Moon Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="moran2005"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Moran |first1=Joseph M. |year=2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213184908/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archivedate=13 December 2010 |title=Weather |work=World Book Online Reference Center |publisher=NASA/World Book, Inc |accessdate=17 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Other articles related to Earth
|list =
{{Solar System}}
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{{Earth science}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>90f1144ec4bf14f41182457d11e3cd28395a9aa2</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>27</id>
    <parentid>26</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T15:06:49Z</timestamp>
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      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="174758" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox planet
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  This infobox has been formatted in the same way as those for other Solar System
  planets and bodies, so please do not change it without discussion on the talkpage.
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Earth
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="The Blue Marble" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''The Blue Marble'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''Terra''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=climate_zones&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archivedate=8 August 2010 |title=Climate Zones |publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cmp134_3&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s004100050465 |title=Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada |year=1999 |last1=Bowring |first1=Samuel A. |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |last2=Williams |first2=Ian S. |bibcode=1999CoMP..134....3B|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24bc524387ca13bebf454dc7702bba691c9ceed7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Connors&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Connors |first1=Martin |last2=Wiegert |first2=Paul |last3=Veillet |first3=Christian |title=Earth's Trojan asteroid |date=27 July 2011 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=475 |pages=481–83 |doi=10.1038/nature10233 |issue=7357 |bibcode=2011Natur.475..481C |pmid=21796207|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40423295d55c5d85b8f8ef86307733faff658cb2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cordoba2004&gt;{{cite web |first1=S. Sanz Fernández |last1=de Córdoba |date=21 June 2004 |url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115223732/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archivedate=15 January 2010 |title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale |accessdate=21 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Cox2000"&gt;{{cite book |editor=Arthur N. Cox |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA244 |edition=4th |date=2000 |publisher=AIP Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |page=244 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Apollo13History"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_13a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 13 The Seventh Mission: The Third Lunar Landing Attempt 11 April–17 April 1970 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=7 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010&gt;{{cite book |last1=de Pater |first1=Imke |last2=Lissauer |first2=Jack J. |title=Planetary Sciences |page=154 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85371-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=dole1970&gt;{{cite book |first1=Stephen H. |last1=Dole |date=1970 |title=Habitable Planets for Man |edition=2nd |publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Co |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R414/ |accessdate=11 March 2007 |isbn=978-0-444-00092-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=duennebier1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Duennebier |first1=Fred |date=12 August 1999 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/plate-tectonics2.html |title=Pacific Plate Motion |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=Dutch2002&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dutch |first1=S. I. |year=2002 |title=Religion as belief versus religion as fact |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=137–44 |url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Dutch_v50n2p137.pdf |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |title=Earth Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=16 March 2017 |accessdate=26 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=edis2003&gt;{{cite book |first1=Taner |last1=Edis |date=2003 |title=A World Designed by God: Science and Creationism in Contemporary Islam |publisher=Amherst: Prometheus |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030608143431/http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |url=http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |archivedate=8 June 2003 |isbn=1-59102-064-6 |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=ellis2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=Lee |last1=Ellis |date=2004 |title=Who's who of NASA Astronauts |publisher=Americana Group Publishing |isbn=978-0-9667961-4-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoofnasaast0000elli }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epsl121_1&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vlaar |first1=N |last2=Vankeken |first2=P. |last3=Vandenberg |first3=A. |title=Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle |year=1994 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=121 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(94)90028-0 |url=http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |bibcode=1994E&amp;PSL.121....1V |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319181621/http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |archivedate=19 March 2012 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fisher19960205&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Rick |date=5 February 1996 |url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html |title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Richard |date=16 February 2006 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/node69.html |title=MHD dynamo theory |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=27 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=frye1983&gt;{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=Roland Mushat |date=1983 |title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science |publisher=Scribner's |isbn=0-684-17993-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97&gt;{{cite web |last1=Geerts |first1=B. |last2=Linacre |first2=E. |url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html |title=The height of the tropopause |date=November 1997 |work=Resources in Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of Wyoming |accessdate=10 August 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=David |title=Chimborazo and the old kilogram |journal=The Lancet |date=5 March 2005 |volume=365 |issue=9462 |pages=831–32 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71021-7 |pmid=15752514|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/046472d8f08b476163d09a743aab3db64b9e9cbe }}&lt;/ref&gt;

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}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
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    <id>28</id>
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    <text bytes="174410" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox planet
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Earth
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="The Blue Marble" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''The Blue Marble'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''Terra''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="heat loss"&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/JB086iB12p11535 |title=Oceans and Continents: Similarities and Differences in the Mechanisms of Heat Loss |year=1981 |last1=Sclater |first1=John G |last2=Parsons |first2=Barry |last3=Jaupart |first3=Claude |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=86 |issue=B12 |page=11535 |bibcode=1981JGR....8611535S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=seligman2008&gt;{{cite web |first1=Courtney |last1=Seligman |year=2008 |url=http://cseligman.com/text/planets/innerstructure.htm |title=The Structure of the Terrestrial Planets |work=Online Astronomy eText Table of Contents |publisher=cseligman.com |accessdate=28 February 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005&gt;{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Shayler |first2=Bert |last2=Vis |date=2005 |title=Russia's Cosmonauts: Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center |publisher=Birkhäuser |isbn=978-0-387-21894-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=stern2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Stern |first1=David P. |date=8 July 2005 |url=http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wmap.html |title=Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="sun_future"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sackmann |first1=I.-J. |last2=Boothroyd |first2=A. I. |last3=Kraemer |first3=K. E. |title=Our Sun. III. Present and Future |journal=Astrophysical Journal |year=1993 |volume=418 |pages=457–68 |doi=10.1086/173407 |bibcode=1993ApJ...418..457S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder"&gt;{{cite journal |first1=K.-P. |last1=Schröder |last2=Connon Smith |first2=Robert |year=2008 |title=Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |arxiv=0801.4031 |volume=386 |issue=1 |pages=155–63 |bibcode=2008MNRAS.386..155S}}&lt;br /&gt;See also {{cite news |first=Jason |last=Palmer |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415105707/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archivedate=15 April 2012 |title=Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death |date=22 February 2008 |work=NewScientist.com news service |accessdate=24 March 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tall_tales&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments/s1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=29 December 2008 |date=15 April 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |last1=Tanimoto |first1=Toshiro |editor=Thomas J. Ahrens |date=1995 |chapter=Crustal Structure of the Earth |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016194153/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 February 2007 |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tp322_19&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00055-X |title=Early formation and long-term stability of continents resulting from decompression melting in a convecting mantle |year=2000 |last1=De Smet |first1=J. |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=322 |issue=1–2 |pages=19–33 |bibcode=2000Tectp.322...19D |last2=Van Den Berg |first2=A.P. |last3=Vlaar |first3=N.J. |hdl=1874/1653 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/1653/1/desmet_etal_00.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |page=137 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="turcotte"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |pages=136–37 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Turner1990"&gt;{{cite book |first1=B. L., II |last1=Turner |title=The Earth As Transformed by Human Action: Global And Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300 Years |publisher=CUP Archive |page=164 |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-36357-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GI0AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA164}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ucs&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database |title=UCS Satellite Database |work=Nuclear Weapons &amp; Global Security |publisher=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]] |date=10 August 2018 |accessdate=27 September 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un_int_law&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/law/ |title=International Law |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=27 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231055149/http://www.un.org/law/ |archivedate=31 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archivedate=5 September 2009 |title=World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un20070202&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=2 February 2007 |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |title=Evidence is now 'unequivocal' that humans are causing global warming&amp;nbsp;– UN report |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221031717/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |archivedate=21 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>6c447de66dc7a821957559b587e47e0ebc08e9f4</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>29</id>
    <parentid>28</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T15:10:12Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="174412" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox planet}}
| background = #f8f9fa
| name   = Earth
| adjectives = Earthly, terrestrial, terran, tellurian
| symbol  = [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px|Astronomical symbol of Earth]]
| image   = The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg
| image_alt ="The Blue Marble" photograph of Earth, taken by the ''[[Apollo 17]]'' mission. The Arabian peninsula, Africa and Madagascar lie in the upper half of the disc, whereas Antarctica is at the bottom.
| caption  = ''The Blue Marble'', the first full-view photograph of the planet, was taken by [[Apollo 17]] astronauts en route to the Moon in 1972
| alt_names = &lt;!--{{ublist|style=padding-top:0.1em;|li_style=line-height:1.3em; |{{hlist|the Earth|the World}} |{{hlist|Blue Planet|[[The Blue Marble|Blue Marble]]|''Terra''|[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]}} }}--&gt;
| epoch     = [[J2000.0|J2000]]&lt;ref group="n" name="epoch" /&gt;
| aphelion   = {{convert|152100000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| perihelion  = {{convert|147095000|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref group="n" name="apsis" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| semimajor   = {{convert|149598023|km|mi AU|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| eccentricity = {{val|0.0167086}}&lt;ref name="VSOP87" /&gt;
| period    = {{convert|365.256363004|d|years|comma=gaps|abbr=on|lk=out|disp=x|&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| avg_speed   = {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| mean_anomaly = {{val|358.617|u=°}}
| inclination  = {{ublist|class=nowrap |{{val|7.155|u=°}} to the [[Sun]]'s [[equator]]; |{{val|1.57869|u=°}}&lt;ref name="Allen294" /&gt; to [[invariable plane]]; |{{val|0.00005|u=°}} to J2000 [[ecliptic]]}}
| asc_node   = {{val|-11.26064|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; to J2000 ecliptic
| arg_peri   = {{val|114.20783|u=°}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| satellites  =
 {{unbulleted list
 | 1 natural satellite: the [[Moon]]
 | 5 [[quasi-satellite]]s
 | &gt;1 800 operational [[artificial satellite]]s&lt;ref name="ucs" /&gt;
 | &gt;16 000 [[space debris]]&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt;
 }}
| allsatellites = yes
| mean_radius  = {{convert|6371.0|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="hbcp2000" /&gt;
| equatorial_radius = {{convert|6378.1|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name=usno /&gt;&lt;ref name="WGS-84" /&gt;
| polar_radius = {{convert|6356.8|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="cazenave_ahrens1995" /&gt;
| flattening  = {{val|0.0033528}}&lt;ref name="IERS2004" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;1/{{val|298.257222101}} ([[ETRS89]])
| circumference =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|40075.017|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[equator]]ial (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84"&gt;[[World Geodetic System]] (''WGS-84''). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/ Available online] from [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 | {{convert|40007.86|km|mi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;[[meridional]] (|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="circ"&gt;Earth's [[circumference]] is almost exactly 40,000&amp;nbsp;km because the metre was calibrated on this measurement—more specifically, 1/10-millionth of the distance between the poles and the equator.&lt;/ref&gt;
 }}
| surface_area =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | {{convert|510072000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt;&lt;ref name="cia" /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="surfacecover" /&gt;
 | {{convert|148940000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| land &lt;small&gt;(|; 29.2%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 | {{convert|361132000|km2|sqmi|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| water &lt;small&gt;(|; 70.8%)&lt;/small&gt;}}
 }}
| volume    = [[Volume of the Earth|{{val|1.08321|e=12|u=km3}}]] &lt;small&gt;({{val|2.59876|e=11|u=cu mi}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| mass     = {{val|5.97237|e=24|u=kg}} &lt;small&gt;({{val|1.31668|e=25|u=lb}})&lt;/small&gt;&lt;ref name="Luzum2011" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;({{val|3.0|e=-6|ul=solar mass}})&lt;/small&gt;
| density    = {{convert|5.514|g/cm3|lb/cuin|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
| surface_grav = {{convert|9.80665|m/s2|ft/s2|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x| &lt;small&gt;([[Gravity of Earth|{{val|1|u=''g''}}]]; |)&lt;/small&gt;}}&lt;ref name="NIST2008" /&gt;
| moment_of_inertia_factor = 0.3307&lt;ref name="Williams1994" /&gt;
| escape_velocity = {{convert|11.186|km/s|km/h mph|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| sidereal_day = {{longitem|{{val|0.99726968|u=d}}&lt;ref name="Allen296" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(23h&amp;nbsp;56m&amp;nbsp;4.100s)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| rot_velocity = {{convert|1674.4|km/h|km/s km/h mph|order=out|comma=gaps|abbr=on|disp=x|&lt;ref name="Cox2000" /&gt; &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;(|)&lt;/small&gt;}}
| axial_tilt  = {{val|23.4392811|u=°}}&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt;
| albedo    = {{ublist|class=nowrap |0.367 [[Geometric albedo|geometric]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; |0.306 [[Bond albedo|Bond]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;}}
| atmosphere  = yes
| temp_name1  = [[Kelvin]]
| min_temp_1  = 184&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp /&gt;
| mean_temp_1  = 287.16&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=kinver20091210 /&gt; ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_1  = 330&amp;nbsp;K&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp /&gt;
| temp_name2  = Celsius
| min_temp_2  = −89.2&amp;nbsp;°C
| mean_temp_2  = 14.0&amp;nbsp;°C ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_2  = 56.9&amp;nbsp;°C
| temp_name3  = Fahrenheit
| min_temp_3  = −128.5&amp;nbsp;°F
| mean_temp_3  = 57.2&amp;nbsp;°F ''(years 1961-1990)''
| max_temp_3  = 134.3&amp;nbsp;°F
| surface_pressure = {{val|101.325|ul=kPa}} (at [[Sea level|MSL]])
| atmosphere_composition =
 {{unbulleted list |class=nowrap
 | 78.08% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem2|N2}}; dry air)&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 20.95% [[oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}})
 | ~&amp;thinsp;1% [[water vapor]] &lt;small&gt;([[climate]] variable)&lt;/small&gt;
 | 0.9340% [[argon]]
 | 0.0408% [[carbon dioxide]]&lt;ref name="NOAA"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |title=Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: Recent Global {{chem2|CO2}} Trend |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |website=[[Earth System Research Laboratory]] |date=26 July 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726210430/https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/gl_trend.html |archivedate=26 July 2018 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
 | 0.00182% [[neon]]&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;
 | 0.00052% [[helium]]
 | 0.00017% [[methane]]
 | 0.00011% [[krypton]]
 | 0.00006% [[hydrogen]]
 }}
| note = no
}}

'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=climate_zones&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archivedate=8 August 2010 |title=Climate Zones |publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cmp134_3&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s004100050465 |title=Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada |year=1999 |last1=Bowring |first1=Samuel A. |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |last2=Williams |first2=Ian S. |bibcode=1999CoMP..134....3B|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24bc524387ca13bebf454dc7702bba691c9ceed7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Connors&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Connors |first1=Martin |last2=Wiegert |first2=Paul |last3=Veillet |first3=Christian |title=Earth's Trojan asteroid |date=27 July 2011 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=475 |pages=481–83 |doi=10.1038/nature10233 |issue=7357 |bibcode=2011Natur.475..481C |pmid=21796207|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40423295d55c5d85b8f8ef86307733faff658cb2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cordoba2004&gt;{{cite web |first1=S. Sanz Fernández |last1=de Córdoba |date=21 June 2004 |url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115223732/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archivedate=15 January 2010 |title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale |accessdate=21 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Cox2000"&gt;{{cite book |editor=Arthur N. Cox |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA244 |edition=4th |date=2000 |publisher=AIP Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |page=244 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Apollo13History"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_13a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 13 The Seventh Mission: The Third Lunar Landing Attempt 11 April–17 April 1970 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=7 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010&gt;{{cite book |last1=de Pater |first1=Imke |last2=Lissauer |first2=Jack J. |title=Planetary Sciences |page=154 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85371-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=dole1970&gt;{{cite book |first1=Stephen H. |last1=Dole |date=1970 |title=Habitable Planets for Man |edition=2nd |publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Co |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R414/ |accessdate=11 March 2007 |isbn=978-0-444-00092-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=duennebier1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Duennebier |first1=Fred |date=12 August 1999 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/plate-tectonics2.html |title=Pacific Plate Motion |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |title=Earth Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=16 March 2017 |accessdate=26 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name=epsl121_1&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vlaar |first1=N |last2=Vankeken |first2=P. |last3=Vandenberg |first3=A. |title=Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle |year=1994 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=121 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(94)90028-0 |url=http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |bibcode=1994E&amp;PSL.121....1V |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319181621/http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |archivedate=19 March 2012 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fisher19960205&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Rick |date=5 February 1996 |url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html |title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Richard |date=16 February 2006 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/node69.html |title=MHD dynamo theory |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=27 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name=frye1983&gt;{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=Roland Mushat |date=1983 |title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science |publisher=Scribner's |isbn=0-684-17993-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97&gt;{{cite web |last1=Geerts |first1=B. |last2=Linacre |first2=E. |url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html |title=The height of the tropopause |date=November 1997 |work=Resources in Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of Wyoming |accessdate=10 August 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gps_time_series&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/mbh/series.html |title=GPS Time Series |publisher=NASA JPL |accessdate=2 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002"&gt;{{cite book |first1=Roy M. |last1=Harrison |authorlink1=Roy M. Harrison |last2=Hester |first2=Ronald E. |date=2002 |title=Causes and Environmental Implications of Increased UV-B Radiation |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |isbn=978-0-85404-265-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hbcp2000&gt;{{cite book |author=Various |editor=David R. Lide |date=2000 |title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |edition=81st |publisher=CRC |isbn=978-0-8493-0481-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="heat loss"&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/JB086iB12p11535 |title=Oceans and Continents: Similarities and Differences in the Mechanisms of Heat Loss |year=1981 |last1=Sclater |first1=John G |last2=Parsons |first2=Barry |last3=Jaupart |first3=Claude |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=86 |issue=B12 |page=11535 |bibcode=1981JGR....8611535S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bounama |first1=Christine |year=2001 |last2=Franck |first2=S. |last3=Von Bloh |first3=W. |title=The fate of Earth's ocean |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=569–75 |doi=10.5194/hess-5-569-2001 |bibcode=2001HESS....5..569B}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hessd4_439&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M. C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B. L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T. A. |title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions |year=2007 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=439–73 |doi=10.5194/hessd-4-439-2007 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00298818/file/hessd-4-439-2007.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle&gt;{{cite web |author=Various |date=21 July 1997 |url=http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/home.rxml |title=The Hydrologic Cycle |publisher=University of Illinois |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes23_799&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(03)00134-2 |title=Continental crustal growth and the supercontinental cycle: evidence from the Central Asian Orogenic Belt |year=2004 |last1=Hong |first1=D. |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=799–813 |bibcode=2004JAESc..23..799H |last2=Zhang |first2=Jisheng |last3=Wang |first3=Tao |last4=Wang |first4=Shiguang |last5=Xie |first5=Xilin}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Berkner |first1=L. V. |last2=Marshall |first2=L. C. |title=On the Origin and Rise of Oxygen Concentration in the Earth's Atmosphere |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=225–61 |bibcode=1965JAtS...22..225B |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022&lt;0225:OTOARO&gt;2.0.CO;2 |year=1965}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=S. C. |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M. |title=The Aeronomy of Hydrogen in the Atmosphere of the Earth |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=1118–36 |bibcode=1974JAtS...31.1118L |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031&lt;1118:TAOHIT&gt;2.0.CO;2 |year=1974}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jessey&gt;{{cite web |last1=Jessey |first1=David |url=http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703170212/http://geology.csupomona.edu/drjessey/class/Gsc101/Weathering.html |archivedate=3 July 2007 |title=Weathering and Sedimentary Rocks |publisher=Cal Poly Pomona |accessdate=20 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pollack |first1=Henry N. |last2=Hurter |first2=Suzanne J. |last3=Johnson |first3=Jeffrey R. |title=Heat flow from the Earth's interior: Analysis of the global data set |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=267–80 |date=August 1993 |doi=10.1029/93RG01249 |bibcode=1993RvGeo..31..267P}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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&lt;ref name=jge53_3_319&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=M. R. |year=2005 |title=Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=53 |issue=3 |page=319 |url=http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=kennedy1989&gt;{{cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Kennedy |authorlink1=Paul Kennedy |date=1989 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers |edition=1st |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-679-72019-5|title-link=The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kennish2001&gt;{{cite book |first1=Michael J. |last1=Kennish |date=2001 |title=Practical handbook of marine science |page=35 |edition=3rd |publisher=CRC Press |series=Marine science series |isbn=978-0-8493-2391-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kinver20091210&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8406839.stm |title=Global average temperature may hit record level in 2010 |last1=Kinver |first1=Mark |date=10 December 2009 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=22 April 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kious |first1=W. J. |last2=Tilling |first2=R. I. |date=5 May 1999 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html |title=Understanding plate motions |publisher=USGS |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kirschvink |first1=J. L. |editor1=Schopf, J.W. |editor2=Klein, C. |editor3=Des Maris, D. |date=1992 |title=Late Proterozoic low-latitude global glaciation: the Snowball Earth |series=The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study |pages=51–52 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-36615-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="moran2005"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Moran |first1=Joseph M. |year=2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213184908/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archivedate=13 December 2010 |title=Weather |work=World Book Online Reference Center |publisher=NASA/World Book, Inc |accessdate=17 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder"&gt;{{cite journal |first1=K.-P. |last1=Schröder |last2=Connon Smith |first2=Robert |year=2008 |title=Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |arxiv=0801.4031 |volume=386 |issue=1 |pages=155–63 |bibcode=2008MNRAS.386..155S}}&lt;br /&gt;See also {{cite news |first=Jason |last=Palmer |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415105707/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13369 |archivedate=15 April 2012 |title=Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death |date=22 February 2008 |work=NewScientist.com news service |accessdate=24 March 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tall_tales&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments/s1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=29 December 2008 |date=15 April 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |last1=Tanimoto |first1=Toshiro |editor=Thomas J. Ahrens |date=1995 |chapter=Crustal Structure of the Earth |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016194153/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/15_tanimoto.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 February 2007 |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=tp322_19&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00055-X |title=Early formation and long-term stability of continents resulting from decompression melting in a convecting mantle |year=2000 |last1=De Smet |first1=J. |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=322 |issue=1–2 |pages=19–33 |bibcode=2000Tectp.322...19D |last2=Van Den Berg |first2=A.P. |last3=Vlaar |first3=N.J. |hdl=1874/1653 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/1874/1653/1/desmet_etal_00.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |page=137 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="turcotte"&gt;{{cite book |last1=Turcotte |first1=D. L. |last2=Schubert |first2=G. |title=Geodynamics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England, UK |date=2002 |edition=2 |pages=136–37 |chapter=4 |isbn=978-0-521-66624-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Turner1990"&gt;{{cite book |first1=B. L., II |last1=Turner |title=The Earth As Transformed by Human Action: Global And Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300 Years |publisher=CUP Archive |page=164 |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-36357-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7GI0AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA164}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ucs&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear-weapons/space-weapons/satellite-database |title=UCS Satellite Database |work=Nuclear Weapons &amp; Global Security |publisher=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]] |date=10 August 2018 |accessdate=27 September 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un_int_law&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/law/ |title=International Law |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=27 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231055149/http://www.un.org/law/ |archivedate=31 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905200753/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/wpp2006.htm |archivedate=5 September 2009 |title=World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=un20070202&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=2 February 2007 |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |title=Evidence is now 'unequivocal' that humans are causing global warming&amp;nbsp;– UN report |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=7 March 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221031717/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21429&amp;Cr=climate&amp;Cr1=change |archivedate=21 December 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
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    <text bytes="167897" xml:space="preserve">'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]] and the only [[astronomical object]] known to harbor [[life]]. According to [[radiometric dating]] and other evidence, Earth formed [[Age of the Earth|over 4.5 billion years ago]]. [[Gravity of Earth|Earth's gravity]] interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the [[Moon]], which is Earth's only [[natural satellite]]. Earth [[Earth's orbit|orbits around the Sun]] in 365.256 days, a period known as an Earth [[sidereal year]]. During this time, Earth [[Earth's rotation|rotates about its axis]] about 365.256 times.&lt;ref group="n" name="sidereal_solar" /&gt;

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s.

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=climate_zones&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808131632/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/climate/older/Climate_Zones.html |archivedate=8 August 2010 |title=Climate Zones |publisher=UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cmp134_3&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s004100050465 |title=Priscoan (4.00–4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada |year=1999 |last1=Bowring |first1=Samuel A. |journal=Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology |volume=134 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |last2=Williams |first2=Ian S. |bibcode=1999CoMP..134....3B|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/24bc524387ca13bebf454dc7702bba691c9ceed7 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Connors&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Connors |first1=Martin |last2=Wiegert |first2=Paul |last3=Veillet |first3=Christian |title=Earth's Trojan asteroid |date=27 July 2011 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=475 |pages=481–83 |doi=10.1038/nature10233 |issue=7357 |bibcode=2011Natur.475..481C |pmid=21796207|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40423295d55c5d85b8f8ef86307733faff658cb2 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cordoba2004&gt;{{cite web |first1=S. Sanz Fernández |last1=de Córdoba |date=21 June 2004 |url=http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115223732/http://www.fai.org/astronautics/100km.asp |archivedate=15 January 2010 |title=Presentation of the Karman separation line, used as the boundary separating Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale |accessdate=21 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Cox2000"&gt;{{cite book |editor=Arthur N. Cox |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA244 |edition=4th |date=2000 |publisher=AIP Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |page=244 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Apollo13History"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_13a_Summary.htm |title=Apollo 13 The Seventh Mission: The Third Lunar Landing Attempt 11 April–17 April 1970 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=7 November 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010&gt;{{cite book |last1=de Pater |first1=Imke |last2=Lissauer |first2=Jack J. |title=Planetary Sciences |page=154 |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-85371-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=dole1970&gt;{{cite book |first1=Stephen H. |last1=Dole |date=1970 |title=Habitable Planets for Man |edition=2nd |publisher=American Elsevier Publishing Co |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/R414/ |accessdate=11 March 2007 |isbn=978-0-444-00092-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=duennebier1999&gt;{{cite web |last1=Duennebier |first1=Fred |date=12 August 1999 |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/ASK/plate-tectonics2.html |title=Pacific Plate Motion |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=Dutch2002&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Dutch |first1=S. I. |year=2002 |title=Religion as belief versus religion as fact |journal=Journal of Geoscience Education |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=137–44 |url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Dutch_v50n2p137.pdf |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |title=Earth Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |first=David R. |last=Williams |date=16 March 2017 |accessdate=26 July 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=edis2003&gt;{{cite book |first1=Taner |last1=Edis |date=2003 |title=A World Designed by God: Science and Creationism in Contemporary Islam |publisher=Amherst: Prometheus |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030608143431/http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |url=http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf |archivedate=8 June 2003 |isbn=1-59102-064-6 |accessdate=28 April 2008 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=ellis2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=Lee |last1=Ellis |date=2004 |title=Who's who of NASA Astronauts |publisher=Americana Group Publishing |isbn=978-0-9667961-4-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/whoswhoofnasaast0000elli }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epsl121_1&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vlaar |first1=N |last2=Vankeken |first2=P. |last3=Vandenberg |first3=A. |title=Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean: Consequences of pressure-release melting in a hotter mantle |year=1994 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=121 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(94)90028-0 |url=http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |bibcode=1994E&amp;PSL.121....1V |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319181621/http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/papers/Vlaar_EPSL94.pdf |archivedate=19 March 2012 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fisher19960205&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fisher |first1=Rick |date=5 February 1996 |url=http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~rfisher/Ephemerides/earth_rot.html |title=Earth Rotation and Equatorial Coordinates |publisher=National Radio Astronomy Observatory |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Fitzpatrick |first1=Richard |date=16 February 2006 |url=http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/lectures/node69.html |title=MHD dynamo theory |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=27 February 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=frye1983&gt;{{cite book |last1=Frye |first1=Roland Mushat |date=1983 |title=Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science |publisher=Scribner's |isbn=0-684-17993-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97&gt;{{cite web |last1=Geerts |first1=B. |last2=Linacre |first2=E. |url=http://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap01/tropo.html |title=The height of the tropopause |date=November 1997 |work=Resources in Atmospheric Sciences |publisher=University of Wyoming |accessdate=10 August 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gps_time_series&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/mbh/series.html |title=GPS Time Series |publisher=NASA JPL |accessdate=2 April 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002"&gt;{{cite book |first1=Roy M. |last1=Harrison |authorlink1=Roy M. Harrison |last2=Hester |first2=Ronald E. |date=2002 |title=Causes and Environmental Implications of Increased UV-B Radiation |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |isbn=978-0-85404-265-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hbcp2000&gt;{{cite book |author=Various |editor=David R. Lide |date=2000 |title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |edition=81st |publisher=CRC |isbn=978-0-8493-0481-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="heat loss"&gt;{{cite journal |doi=10.1029/JB086iB12p11535 |title=Oceans and Continents: Similarities and Differences in the Mechanisms of Heat Loss |year=1981 |last1=Sclater |first1=John G |last2=Parsons |first2=Barry |last3=Jaupart |first3=Claude |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=86 |issue=B12 |page=11535 |bibcode=1981JGR....8611535S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bounama |first1=Christine |year=2001 |last2=Franck |first2=S. |last3=Von Bloh |first3=W. |title=The fate of Earth's ocean |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=569–75 |doi=10.5194/hess-5-569-2001 |bibcode=2001HESS....5..569B}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hessd4_439&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Peel |first1=M. C. |last2=Finlayson |first2=B. L. |last3=McMahon |first3=T. A. |title=Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions |year=2007 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=439–73 |doi=10.5194/hessd-4-439-2007 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00298818/file/hessd-4-439-2007.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle&gt;{{cite web |author=Various |date=21 July 1997 |url=http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/home.rxml |title=The Hydrologic Cycle |publisher=University of Illinois |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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---&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=reilly20091022&gt;{{cite news |first1=Michael |last1=Reilly |date=22 October 2009 |title=Controversial Moon Origin Theory Rewrites History |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/moon-earth-formation.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109042800/http://news.discovery.com/space/moon-earth-formation.html |archivedate=9 January 2010 |accessdate=30 January 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=robertson2001&gt;{{cite web |last1=Robertson |first1=Eugene C. |date=26 July 2001 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/ |title=The Interior of the Earth |publisher=USGS |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

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    <text bytes="167689" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 

Earth's outer layer ([[Lithosphere#Earth's lithosphere|lithosphere]]) is divided into several rigid [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] that migrate across the surface over many millions of years. About 29% of Earth's surface is [[Land#History of land on Earth|land]] consisting of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. The remaining 71% is [[Water distribution on Earth|covered with water]], mostly by [[ocean]]s but also [[lake]]s, [[river]]s and other [[fresh water]], which all together constitute the [[hydrosphere]]. The majority of [[Polar regions of Earth|Earth's polar regions]] are covered in [[ice]], including the [[Antarctic ice sheet]] and the [[sea ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]]. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron [[Earth's inner core|inner core]], a liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]] that generates [[Earth's magnetic field]], and a convecting [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] that drives plate tectonics.

Within the first billion years of [[History of Earth|Earth's history]], [[Abiogenesis|life appeared in the oceans]] and began to affect [[Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]] and surface, leading to the proliferation of [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] and, [[Great Oxidation Event|later]], [[aerobic organisms]]. Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as early as 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion years ago. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, physical properties and [[Geological history of Earth|geological history]] have allowed life to [[Evolution|evolve]] and thrive. In the [[Timeline of the evolutionary history of life|history of life on Earth]], [[biodiversity]] has gone through long periods of expansion, occasionally punctuated by [[extinction event|mass extinctions]]. Over 99% of all [[species]] that ever lived on Earth are [[extinct]]. Estimates of the [[number of species]] on Earth today vary widely; most species have not been [[Species description|described]]. [[World population|Over 7.7&amp;nbsp;billion humans]] live on Earth and depend on its [[biosphere]] and [[natural resource]]s for their survival. Politically, the world has around [[List of sovereign states|200 sovereign states]].
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== Name and etymology ==
[[File:Beowulf - eorthan.jpg|thumb|left|An early mention of "eorðan" (earth) in ''[[Beowulf]]'']]
The [[modern English]] word {{anchor|Name|Etymology}} ''Earth'' developed from a wide variety of [[Middle English]] forms,{{refn|group=n|Including ''eorþe'', ''erþe'', ''erde'', and ''erthe''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;}} which derived from an [[Old English]] noun most often spelled ''{{linktext|eorðe}}''.&lt;ref name=oedearth&gt;Oxford English Dictionary, {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "earth, ''n.¹''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; It has cognates in every [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]], and their [[proto-Germanic]] root has been reconstructed as [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/erþō|*''erþō'']]. In its earliest appearances, ''eorðe'' was already being used to translate the many senses of [[Latin language|Latin]] ''{{linktext|terra}}'' and [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{linktext|γῆ}} (''gē''): the ground,{{refn|group=n|As in ''[[Beowulf]]'' (1531–33):&lt;br /&gt;''Wearp ða wundelmæl&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;wrættum gebunden&lt;br /&gt;yrre oretta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;þæt hit on '''eorðan''' læg,&lt;br /&gt;stið ond stylecg.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref name=beo /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"He threw the artfully-wound sword so that it lay upon the '''earth''', firm and sharp-edged."&lt;ref name=beo&gt;''Beowulf''. Trans. Chad Matlick in [http://www.as.wvu.edu/english/oeoe/english311/1799.html "''Beowulf'': Lines 1399 to 1799"]. West Virginia University. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} its [[soil]],{{refn|group=n|As in the Old English glosses of the ''[[Lindisfarne Gospels]]'' ([[Luke 13]]:7):&lt;br /&gt;Succidite ergo illam ut quid etiam '''terram''' occupat: ''hrendas'' uel ''scearfað forðon ðailca ''uel'' hia to huon uutedlice '''eorðo''' gionetað ''uel'' gemerras.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Remove it. Why should it use up the '''soil'''?"&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2013:7&amp;version=MOUNCE Luke 13:7]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} dry land,{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''[[Heptateuch]]'' ([[Book of Genesis|Gen. 1]]:10):&lt;br /&gt;''Ond God gecygde ða drignysse '''eorðan''' ond ðære wætera gegaderunge he het sæ''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric of Eynsham. [http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html ''Heptateuch''. Reprinted by S.J. Crawford as ''The Old English Version of the Heptateuch, Ælfric’s Treatise on the Old and New Testament and his Preface to Genesis''. Humphrey Milford (London), 1922.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308193838/http://wordhord.org/nasb/genesis.html |date=8 March 2015 }} Hosted at ''Wordhord''. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"And God called the dry land '''Earth'''; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas."&lt;ref&gt;[[King James Version]] of [[the Bible]]: "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201:10&amp;version=KJV Genesis 1:10]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} the human world,{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Wessex Gospels]] ([[Matthew 28|Matt. 28]]:18):&lt;br /&gt;''Me is geseald ælc anweald on heofonan &amp; on '''eorðan'''''.&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"All authority in heaven and on '''earth''' has been given to me."&lt;ref&gt;''Mounce Reverse-Intralinear New Testament'': "[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A18&amp;version=MOUNCE Matthew 28:18]". Hosted at ''Bible Gateway''. 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|grc}} &amp;&lt;/ref&gt;}} the surface of the world (including the sea),{{refn|group=n|As in the [[Codex Junius]]'s ''[[Genesis A|Genesis]]'' (112–16):&lt;br /&gt;''her ærest gesceop&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ece drihten,&lt;br /&gt;helm eallwihta,&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;heofon and '''eorðan''',&lt;br /&gt;rodor arærde&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and þis rume land&lt;br /&gt;gestaþelode&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;strangum mihtum,&lt;br /&gt;frea ælmihtig.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;"[http://www.maldura.unipd.it/dllags/brunetti/OE/TESTI/GenesisA/DATI/testo.html Genesis A]". Hosted at the Dept. of Linguistic Studies at the University of Padua. Retrieved 5 August 2014. {{in lang|ang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Here first with mighty power the Everlasting Lord, the Helm of all created things, Almighty King, made '''earth''' and heaven, raised up the sky and founded the spacious land."&lt;ref&gt;Killings, Douglas. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/618/618-h/618-h.htm ''Codex Junius 11'', I.ii]. 1996. Hosted at Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 5 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} and the globe itself.{{refn|group=n|As in [[Ælfric of Eynsham|Ælfric]]'s ''On the Seasons of the Year'' {{nowrap|(Ch. 6,}} §&amp;nbsp;9):&lt;br /&gt;''Seo '''eorðe''' stent on gelicnysse anre pinnhnyte, &amp; seo sunne glit onbutan be Godes gesetnysse.''&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"The '''earth''' can be compared to a pine cone, and the Sun glides around it by God's decree.&lt;ref&gt;Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham. "''De temporibus annis''" Trans. {{nowrap|P. Baker}} as "[http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html On the Seasons of the Year] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150130173332/http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/aelfric/detemp.html |date=30 January 2015 }}". Hosted at Old English at the University of Virginia, 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;}} As with [[Terra (goddess)|Terra]]/Tellūs and [[Gaia (goddess)|Gaia]], Earth was a [[earth goddess|personified goddess]] in [[Germanic religion (aboriginal)|Germanic paganism]]: the [[Angles]] were listed by [[Tacitus]] as among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|devotees]] of [[Nerthus]],&lt;ref&gt;[[Tacitus]]. ''[[Germania (Tacitus)|Germania]]'', {{nowrap|Ch. 40}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and later [[Norse mythology]] included [[Jörð]], a giantess often given as the mother of [[Thor]].&lt;ref name="SIMEK179"&gt;[[Rudolf Simek|Simek, Rudolf]]. Trans. Angela Hall as ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', {{nowrap|p. 179.}} [[Boydell &amp; Brewer|D.S. Brewer]], 2007. {{ISBN|0-85991-513-1}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Originally, ''earth'' was written in lowercase, and from [[early Middle English]], its [[definite]] sense as "the globe" was expressed as ''[[definite article|the]] earth''. By [[Early Modern English]], many nouns were capitalized, and ''the earth'' became (and often remained) ''the Earth'', particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as ''Earth'', by analogy with the names of the [[Solar System|other planets]].&lt;ref name=oedearth /&gt; [[Style guide|House styles]] now vary: [[Oxford spelling]] recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by ''the'' (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"&lt;ref name="oxford"&gt;''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', {{nowrap|1st ed.}} "earth". Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1998. {{ISBN|0-19-861263-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|Artist's impression of the early Solar System's planetary disk]]
The oldest material found in the [[Solar System]] is dated to {{val|4.5672|0.0006|ul=billion years ago}} (Bya).&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995 /&gt; By {{val|4.54|0.04|u=Bya}}&lt;ref name="age_earth1" /&gt; the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|the Solar System formed and evolved]] with the Sun. In theory, a [[solar nebula]] partitions a volume out of a [[molecular cloud]] by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a [[circumstellar disk]], and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] (including [[primordial nuclide]]s). According to [[nebular theory]], [[planetesimal]]s formed by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], with the primordial Earth taking 10–{{val|20|ul=million years}} (Mys) to form.&lt;ref name=nature418_6901_949 /&gt;

A subject of research is the formation of the Moon, some 4.53 Bya.&lt;ref name=science310_5754_1671 /&gt; A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a [[Mars]]-sized object, named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]], [[giant impact hypothesis|hit]] Earth.&lt;ref name=reilly20091022 /&gt; In this view, the mass of Theia was approximately 10 percent of Earth;&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a /&gt; it hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth.&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b /&gt; Between approximately 4.1 and {{val|3.8|u=Bya}}, numerous [[Impact event|asteroid impacts]] during the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== Geological history ===
{{Main|Geological history of Earth}}
[[File:USA 10654 Bryce Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoos]] at the [[Bryce Canyon National Park]], [[Utah]]]]

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by [[Volcano|volcanic activity]] and [[outgassing]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_17.html |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere and Oceans |work=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]] |publisher=[[Universities Space Research Association]] |access-date=27 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water vapor from these sources [[origin of the world's oceans|condensed]] into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, [[protoplanet]]s, and [[comet]]s.&lt;ref name="watersource" /&gt; In [[faint young Sun paradox|this model]], atmospheric "[[greenhouse gas]]es" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its [[solar luminosity|current luminosity]].&lt;ref name=asp2002 /&gt; By {{val|3.5|u=Bya}}, [[Earth's magnetic field]] was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=physorg20100304 /&gt;

A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled [[Phase transition|to form]] a solid. The two models&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004 /&gt; that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms&lt;ref name=science164_1229 /&gt; or, more likely, a rapid growth&lt;ref name=tp322_19 /&gt; early in Earth history&lt;ref name=rg6_175 /&gt; followed by a long-term steady continental area.&lt;ref name=science310_5756_1947 /&gt;&lt;ref name=jaes23_799 /&gt;&lt;ref name=ajes38_613 /&gt; Continents formed by [[plate tectonics]], a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over [[Geologic time scale|the period]] of hundreds of millions of years, the [[supercontinent]]s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly {{val|750|u=million years ago}} (Mya), one of the earliest known supercontinents, [[Rodinia]], began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form [[Pannotia]] {{val|600|–|540|u=Mya}}, then finally [[Pangaea]], which also broke apart {{val|180|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref name=as92_324 /&gt;

The present pattern of [[ice age]]s began about {{val|40|u=Mya}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/earth/ask-a-scientist-about-our-environment/how-did-the-ice-age-end |title=When and how did the ice age end? Could another one start? |first=Ro |last=Kinzler |access-date=27 June 2019 |work=[[American Museum of Natural History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; and then intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] about {{val|3|u=Mya}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Causes of ice age intensification across the Mid-Pleistocene Transition |journal=[[Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A]] |date=12 December 2007 |volume=114 |issue=50 |pages=13114–13119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1702143114 |pmc=5740680 |pmid=29180424 |first=Thomas B. |last=Chalk |first2=Mathis P. |last2=Hain |first3=Gavin L. |last3=Foster |first4=Eelco J. |last4=Rohling |first5=Philip F. |last5=Sexton |first6=Marcus P. S. |last6=Badger |first7=Soraya G. |last7=Cherry |first8=Adam P. |last8=Hasenfratz |first9=Gerald H. |last9=Haug |first10=Samuel L. |last10=Jaccard |first11=Alfredo |last11=Martínez-García |first12=Heiko |last12=Pälike |first13=Richard D. |last13=Pancost |first14=Paul A. |last14=Wilson |url=https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/114/50/13114.full.pdf |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; High-[[latitude]] regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every {{val|40000|-|100000|u=years|fmt=commas}}. The last continental glaciation ended {{val|10000|u=years|fmt=commas}} ago.&lt;ref name=psc /&gt;

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}
[[File:PhylogeneticTree, Woese 1990.svg|thumb|left|[[Phylogenetic tree]] of life on Earth based on [[rRNA]] analysis]]
[[Chemical reaction]]s led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all current life]] arose.&lt;ref name=sa282_6_90 /&gt; The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant [[molecular oxygen]] ({{chem2|O2}}) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective [[ozone layer]] ({{chem2|O3}}) in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003"&gt;{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |title=Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/science/earths-oxygen-a-mystery-easy-to-take-for-granted.html |date=3 October 2013 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=3 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryote]]s.&lt;ref name=jas22_3_225 /&gt; True multicellular organisms formed as cells within [[Colony (biology)|colonies]] became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]] by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface.&lt;ref name=burton20021129 /&gt; Among the earliest [[fossil]] evidence for [[life]] is [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[sandstone]] in [[Western Australia]],&lt;ref name="AST-20131108"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |date=8 November 2013 |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |pmid=24205812 |pmc=3870916 |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Biogenic substance|biogenic]] [[graphite]] found in 3.7&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old [[metasediment]]ary rocks in [[Western Greenland]],&lt;ref name="NG-20131208"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c293044eed458e8149a0d7c6dc8a34a9bbffc9d5 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and remains of [[biotic material]] found in 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.&lt;ref name="AP-20151019"&gt;{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=20 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1&amp;nbsp;billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |accessdate=20 October 2015 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |pages=14518–21 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest direct evidence of life]] on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old [[Australia]]n rocks showing fossils of [[microorganism]]s.&lt;ref name="WU-20171218"&gt;{{cite web |last=Tyrell |first=Kelly April |title=Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url=https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date=18 December 2017 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] |accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="PNAS-2017"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kitajima |first2=Kouki |last3=Spicuzza |first3=Michael J. |last4=Kudryavtsev |first4=Anatolly B. |last5=Valley |first5=John W. |title=SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |year=2017 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=53–58 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid=29255053 |pmc=5776830 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115...53S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During the [[Neoproterozoic]], {{val|750|to|580|u=Mya}}, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "[[Snowball Earth]]", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the [[Cambrian explosion]], when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity.&lt;ref name=kirschvink1992 /&gt; Following the Cambrian explosion, {{val|535|u=Mya}}, there have been five [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]].&lt;ref name="sci215_4539_1501" /&gt; The [[Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event|most recent such event]] was {{val|66|u=Mya}}, when [[Chicxulub impactor|an asteroid impact]] triggered the extinction of the non-[[bird|avian]] [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared some small animals such as [[mammal]]s, which at the time resembled [[shrew]]s. Mammalian life has diversified over the past {{val|66|u=Mys}}, and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' gained the ability to stand upright.&lt;ref name="gould1994" /&gt; This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the [[Human evolution|evolution of humans]]. The [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]], and then [[List of ancient civilizations|civilization]], led to humans having an [[Human impact on the environment|influence on Earth]] and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day.&lt;ref name="bgsa119_1_140" /&gt;

=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}
{{See also|Global catastrophic risk}}
Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next {{val|1.1|u=billion years}}, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next {{val|3.5|u=billion years}} by 40%.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the [[carbonate–silicate cycle|inorganic carbon cycle]], reducing [[Carbon dioxide|{{chem2|CO2}}]] concentration to levels lethally low for plants ({{val|10|ul=ppm}} for [[C4 carbon fixation|C4 photosynthesis]]) in approximately {{val|100|–|900|u=million years}}.&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; About a billion years from now, all surface water will have disappeared&lt;ref name=carrington /&gt; and the mean global temperature will reach {{convert|70|C|F|0}}.&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002 /&gt; Earth is expected to be habitable until the end of photosynthesis about {{val|500|u=million years}} from now,&lt;ref name="britt2000" /&gt; but if nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere, life may continue until a [[runaway greenhouse effect]] occurs {{val|2.3|u=billion years}} from now.&lt;ref name=pnas1_24_9576 /&gt; Anthropogenic emissions are "probably insufficient" to cause a runaway greenhouse at current solar luminosity.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-runaway-greenhouse/ |title=Fact or Fiction?: We Can Push the Planet into a Runaway Greenhouse Apocalypse |author=Lee Billings |work=Scientific American |date=31 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Even if the Sun were eternal and stable, 27% of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] in one billion years, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges.&lt;ref name=hess5_4_569 /&gt;

The Sun will [[stellar evolution|evolve]] to become a [[red giant]] in about {{val|5|u=billion years}}. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly {{convert|1|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=in|abbr=unit}}, about 250 times its present radius.&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt;&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt; Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit {{convert|1.7|AU|e6km e6mi|lk=off|abbr=unit}} from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level).&lt;ref name="sun_future" /&gt; A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to [[Tidal acceleration|tidal effects]] and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be [[Vaporization|vaporized]].&lt;ref name="sun_future_schroder" /&gt;

== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==

=== Shape ===
[[File:Earth2014shape SouthAmerica small.jpg|thumb|Shown are distances between surface relief and the geocentre. The South American Andes summits are visible as elevated areas. The [[shaded relief]] has [[vertical exaggeration]]. Data from the Earth2014&lt;ref name="Earth2014"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |title=Earth2014 global topography (relief) model |publisher=Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie |accessdate=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055004/http://www.iapg.bgu.tum.de/9321785--~iapg~forschung~Topographie~Earth2014.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; global relief model.]]
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|The summit of [[Chimborazo]], the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center&lt;ref name="News in Science"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/04/16/1086384.htm |title=Tall Tales about Highest Peaks |publisher=ABC Science |date=16 April 2004 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="TED"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/rives_reinventing_the_encyclopedia_game?language=en |title=Reinventing the encyclopedia game |publisher=Rives |date=April 2012 |accessdate=29 May 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
{{Main|Figure of the Earth|Earth radius|Earth's circumference}}
The shape of Earth is nearly spherical. There is a small flattening at the poles and [[equatorial bulge|bulging]] around the [[equator]] due to [[Earth's rotation]].&lt;ref name=milbert_smith96 /&gt; To second order, Earth is approximately an [[oblate spheroid]], whose equatorial diameter is {{convert|43|km|mi}} larger than the [[Geographical pole|pole]]-to-pole diameter,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; although the variation is less than 1% of the average [[radius of the Earth]].

The point on the surface farthest from Earth's [[center of mass]] is the summit of the equatorial [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] volcano in [[Ecuador]] ({{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on|disp=or}}).&lt;ref name=ps20_5_16 /&gt;&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831 /&gt;&lt;ref name=tall_tales /&gt;&lt;ref name="The 'Highest' Spot on Earth"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 |title=The 'Highest' Spot on Earth |publisher=NPR |date=7 April 2007 |accessdate=31 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The average diameter of the reference spheroid is {{convert|12742|km|mi}}. Local [[topography]] deviates from this idealized spheroid, although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth's radius: the maximum deviation of only 0.17% is at the [[Mariana Trench]] ({{convert|10911|m|ft|disp=or}} below local sea level), whereas [[Mount Everest]] ({{convert|8848|m|ft|disp=or}} above local sea level) represents a deviation of 0.14%.{{refn|group=n| If Earth were shrunk to the size of a [[billiard ball]], some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections, whereas much of the planet, including the [[Great Plains]] and the [[abyssal plain]]s, would feel smoother.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf |title=Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth? |publisher=Billiards Digest |date=1 June 2013 |accessdate=26 November 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

In [[geodesy]], the exact shape that Earth's oceans would adopt in the absence of land and perturbations such as tides and winds is called the [[geoid]]. More precisely, the geoid is the surface of gravitational equipotential at [[mean sea level]].

=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Internal structure ===
{{Main|Structure of the Earth}}
Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their [[chemical]] or physical ([[Rheology|rheological]]) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct [[Silicate minerals|silicate]] solid crust, which is underlain by a highly [[viscous]] solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]]. The thickness of the crust varies from about {{convert|6|km|mi}} under the oceans to {{convert|30|-|50|km|mi|abbr=on}} for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the [[upper mantle]] are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the [[asthenosphere]], a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at {{convert|410|and|660|km|mi|abbr=on}} below the surface, spanning a [[Transition zone (Earth)|transition zone]] that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid [[outer core]] lies above a solid [[Earth's inner core|inner core]].&lt;ref name=tanimoto_ahrens1995 /&gt; Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher [[angular velocity]] than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year.&lt;ref name=science309_5739_1313 /&gt; The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Geologic layers of Earth&lt;ref name=pnas76_9_4192 /&gt;
|-
! rowspan="8" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"|[[File:Earth-cutaway-schematic-english.svg|frameless|center]]&lt;br /&gt;Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Not to scale.
!Depth&lt;ref name=robertson2001 /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;km&lt;/span&gt;
!style="vertical-align: bottom;"|Component layer
!Density&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
|0–60
|style="text-align:left;"|Lithosphere&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|200|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|—
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|0–35
|style="text-align:left;"| Crust&lt;ref group="n"&gt;Locally varies between {{val|5|and|70|u=km}}.&lt;/ref&gt;
|2.2–2.9
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|35–60
|style="text-align:left;"| Upper mantle
|3.4–4.4
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;35–2890
|style="text-align:left;"|Mantle
|3.4–5.6
|- style="background:#FEFEFE;"
|100–700
|style="text-align:left;"| Asthenosphere
|—
|-
|2890–5100
|style="text-align:left;"|Outer core
|9.9–12.2
|-
|5100–6378
|style="text-align:left;"|Inner core
|12.8–13.1
|}

=== Heat ===
{{Main|Earth's internal heat budget}}
Earth's [[internal heat]] comes from a combination of residual heat from [[planetary accretion]] (about 20%) and heat produced through [[radioactive decay]] (80%).&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt; The major heat-producing [[isotope]]s within Earth are [[potassium-40]], [[uranium-238]], and [[thorium-232]].&lt;ref name=sanders20031210 /&gt; At the center, the temperature may be up to {{convert|6000|C|F}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Earth's Centre is 1000 Degrees Hotter than Previously Thought |url=http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter |website=The European Synchrotron (ESRF) |accessdate=12 April 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130628075455/http://www.esrf.eu/news/general/Earth-Center-Hotter/Earth-Centre-Hotter/ |archivedate=28 June 2013 |date=25 April 2013 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the pressure could reach {{convert|360|GPa|e6psi|abbr=unit|lk=on}}.&lt;ref name=ptrsl360_1795_1227 /&gt; Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately {{val|3|ul=Gyr}}, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of [[mantle convection]] and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as [[komatiite]]s that are rarely formed today.&lt;ref name="turcotte" /&gt;&lt;ref name=epsl121_1 /&gt;

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Present-day major heat-producing isotopes&lt;ref name="T&amp;S 137" /&gt;
|-
! Isotope
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg isotope}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Half-life&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;years&lt;/span&gt;
! Mean mantle concentration&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|kg isotope|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
! Heat release&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;{{sfrac|W|kg mantle}}&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|94.6|e=-6}}
| {{val|4.47|e=9}}
| {{val|30.8|e=-9}}
| {{val|2.91|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U
| {{val|569|e=-6}}
| {{val|0.704|e=9}}
| {{val|0.22|e=-9}}
| {{val|0.125|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;232&lt;/sup&gt;Th
| {{val|26.4|e=-6}}
| {{val|14.0|e=9}}
| {{val|124|e=-9}}
| {{val|3.27|e=-12}}
|-
| &lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K
| {{val|29.2|e=-6}}
| {{val|1.25|e=9}}
| {{val|36.9|e=-9}}
| {{val|1.08|e=-12}}
|}

The mean heat loss from Earth is {{val|87|u=mW m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt;}}, for a global heat loss of {{val|4.42|e=13|u=W}}.&lt;ref name=jg31_3_267 /&gt; A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by [[mantle plume]]s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]] and [[flood basalt]]s.&lt;ref name=science246_4926_103 /&gt; More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.&lt;ref name="heat loss" /&gt;{{clear right}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}
Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: At [[Convergent boundary|convergent boundaries]], two plates come together; at [[Divergent boundary|divergent boundaries]], two plates are pulled apart; and at [[Transform boundary|transform boundaries]], two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, [[earthquake]]s, [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], [[Orogeny|mountain-building]], and [[oceanic trench]] formation can occur.&lt;ref name=kious_tilling1999 /&gt; The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.&lt;ref name=seligman2008 /&gt;

[[File:Mount-Everest.jpg|thumb|left|[[Orogeny|Mountains build up]] when tectonic plates move toward each other, forcing rock up. The highest [[mountain]] on Earth above sea level is [[Mount Everest]].]]

As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is [[Subduction|subducted]] under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the [[oceanic crust]] back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than {{val|100|u=Myr}} old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be {{val|200|u=Myr}} old.&lt;ref name=duennebier1999 /&gt;&lt;ref name=noaa20070307 /&gt; By comparison, the oldest dated [[continental crust]] is {{val|4030|u=Myr|fmt=commas}}.&lt;ref name=cmp134_3 /&gt;

The seven major plates are the [[Pacific Plate|Pacific]], [[North American Plate|North American]], [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], [[African Plate|African]], [[Antarctic Plate|Antarctic]], [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian]], and [[South American Plate|South American]]. Other notable plates include the [[Arabian Plate]], the [[Caribbean Plate]], the [[Nazca Plate]] off the west coast of South America and the [[Scotia Plate]] in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between {{val|50|and|55|u=Mya}}. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the [[Cocos Plate]] advancing at a rate of {{convert|75|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}&lt;ref name=podp2000 /&gt; and the Pacific Plate moving {{convert|52|–|69|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}. At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical rate of {{convert|21|mm/year|in/year|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=gps_time_series /&gt;

=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

[[File:AYool topography 15min.png|thumb|left|Present-day Earth [[terrain|altimetry]] and [[bathymetry]]. Data from the [[National Geophysical Data Center]].]]
[[File:Earth dry elevation.stl|thumb|right|Current Earth without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).]]
The total [[Spheroid#Area|surface area]] of Earth is about {{convert|510|e6km2|e6sqmi|0|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; Of this, 70.8%,&lt;ref name="Pidwirny 2006_8" /&gt; or {{convert|361.13|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, is below sea level and covered by ocean water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2 November 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below the ocean's surface are much of the [[continental shelf]], mountains, volcanoes,&lt;ref name="ngdc2006" /&gt; oceanic trenches, [[submarine canyon]]s, [[oceanic plateau]]s, abyssal plains, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. The remaining 29.2%, or {{convert|148.94|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}}, not covered by water has [[terrain]] that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other [[landform]]s. [[erosion and tectonics|Tectonics and erosion]], [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[flooding]], [[weathering]], [[glaciation]], the growth of [[coral reef]]s, and [[Impact event|meteorite impacts]] are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over [[geological time]].&lt;ref name=kring /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth |first=Ronald |last=Martin |publisher=Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC |isbn=978-0-7637-8001-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks [[granite]] and [[andesite]]. Less common is [[basalt]], a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.&lt;ref name=layers_earth /&gt; [[Sedimentary rock]] is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and [[Diagenesis|compacted together]]. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.&lt;ref name=jessey /&gt; The third form of rock material found on Earth is [[metamorphic rock]], which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high temperatures, or both. The most abundant [[silicate mineral]]s on Earth's surface include [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[amphibole]], [[mica]], [[pyroxene]] and [[olivine]].&lt;ref name=de_pater_lissauer2010 /&gt; Common [[carbonate mineral]]s include [[calcite]] (found in [[limestone]]) and [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]].&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004 /&gt;

The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of {{convert|-418|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the [[Dead Sea]], to a maximum altitude of {{convert|8848|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about {{convert|797|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html |title=Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1 |first=National Geophysical Data |last=Center |website=ngdc.noaa.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[pedosphere]] is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of [[soil]] and subject to [[pedogenesis|soil formation processes]]. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank arable land |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS/countries/1W?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=World Bank permanent cropland |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.CROP.ZS/countries?display=graph |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=19 October 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture, or an estimated {{convert|16.7|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of cropland and {{convert|33.5|e6km2|e6sqmi|abbr=unit}} of pastureland.&lt;ref name="Hooke2012"&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf |title=Land transformation by humans: A review |journal=GSA Today |first1=Roger LeB. |last1=Hooke |first2=José F. |last2=Martín-Duque |first3=Javier |last3=Pedraza |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=4–10 |date=December 2012 |doi=10.1130/GSAT151A.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}
[[File:Earth elevation histogram 2.svg|thumb|Elevation histogram of Earth's surface]]
The abundance of [[water]] on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of {{convert|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The deepest underwater location is [[Challenger Deep]] of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of {{convert|10911.4|m|ft|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref group="n" name="trench_depth" /&gt;&lt;ref name=kaiko7000 /&gt;

The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35{{e|18}}&amp;nbsp;[[metric ton]]s or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of {{convert|361.8|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=unit}} with a mean depth of {{convert|3682|m|ft|abbr=on}}, resulting in an estimated volume of {{convert|1.332|e9km3|e6cumi|abbr=unit}}.&lt;ref name=ocean23_2_112 /&gt; If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be {{convert|2.7|to|2.8|km|mi|2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/559627/sphere-depth-of-the-ocean |title=sphere depth of the ocean&amp;nbsp;– hydrology |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_chapter.asp?id=4 |title=Third rock from the Sun&amp;nbsp;– restless Earth |work=NASA's Cosmos |accessdate=12 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

About 97.5% of the water is [[saline water|saline]]; the remaining 2.5% is [[fresh water]]. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in [[ice cap]]s and [[glacier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html |title=The World's Water |last1=Perlman |first1=Howard |date=17 March 2014 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |work=USGS Water-Science School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The average [[salinity]] of Earth's oceans is about 35&amp;nbsp;grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt).&lt;ref name=kennish2001 /&gt; Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks.&lt;ref name=mullen2002 /&gt; The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.&lt;ref name=natsci_oxy4 /&gt; Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large [[heat reservoir]].&lt;ref name=michon2006 /&gt; Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]].&lt;ref name=sample2005 /&gt;

=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}
[[File:MODIS Map.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Earth [[cloud cover]] using [[NASA]]'s [[Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer]]]]
[[File:Thin Line of Earth's Atmosphere and the Setting Sun.jpg|thumb|NASA photo showing the Earth's atmosphere, with the setting sun, with the Earth's landmass in shadow]]
The [[atmospheric pressure]] at Earth's [[sea level]] averages {{convert|101.325|kPa|psi|3|abbr=on}},&lt;ref name="Exline2006"&gt;{{cite book |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/288978main_Meteorology_Guide.pdf |title=Meteorology: An Educator's Resource for Inquiry-Based Learning for Grades 5-9 |publisher=NASA/Langley Research Center |first1=Joseph D. |last1=Exline |first2=Arlene S. |last2=Levine |first3=Joel S. |last3=Levine |page=6 |date=2006 |id=NP-2006-08-97-LaRC}}&lt;/ref&gt; with a [[scale height]] of about {{convert|8.5|km|mi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% [[nitrogen]], 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% [[argon]], and trace amounts of [[carbon dioxide]] and other gaseous molecules.&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; [[Water vapor]] content varies between 0.01% and 4%&lt;ref name="Exline2006" /&gt; but averages about 1%.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt; The height of the [[troposphere]] varies with latitude, ranging between {{convert|8|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the poles to {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.&lt;ref name=geerts_linacre97 /&gt;

Earth's [[biosphere]] has significantly altered its [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]]. [[Oxygen evolution#Oxygen evolution in nature|Oxygenic photosynthesis]] evolved {{val|2.7|u=Gya}}, [[oxygen catastrophe|forming]] the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; This change enabled the proliferation of [[aerobic organisms]] and, indirectly, the formation of the [[ozone layer]] due to the subsequent [[Ozone–oxygen cycle|conversion of atmospheric {{chem2|O2}} into {{chem2|O3}}]]. The ozone layer blocks [[ultraviolet]] [[solar radiation]], permitting life on land.&lt;ref name="Harrison 2002" /&gt; Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small [[meteor]]s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature.&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; This last phenomenon is known as the [[greenhouse effect]]: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture [[thermal energy]] emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], and [[ozone]] are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be {{convert|−18|C|F}}, in contrast to the current {{convert|+15|C|F}},&lt;ref name="Pidwirny2006_7" /&gt; and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form.&lt;ref name=Narottam2008 /&gt; In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be [[Reflection (physics)|reflected light]] from [[ice crystals]] in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name="NYT-20170519"&gt;{{cite news |last=St. Fleur |first=Nicholas |title=Spotting Mysterious Twinkles on Earth From a Million Miles Away |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/19/science/dscovr-satellite-ice-glints-earth-atmosphere.html |date=19 May 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=20 May 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="GRL-201760515"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Marshak |first1=Alexander |last2=Várnai |first2=Tamás |last3=Kostinski |first3=Alexander |title=Terrestrial glint seen from deep space: oriented ice crystals detected from the Lagrangian point |date=15 May 2017 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |doi=10.1002/2017GL073248 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=5197–5202 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.5197M |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229066}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first {{convert|11|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is [[atmospheric circulation]] that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt;

The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the [[trade winds]] in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the [[westerlies]] in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; [[Ocean current]]s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the [[thermohaline circulation]] that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.&lt;ref name=rahmstorf2003 /&gt;

Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation.&lt;ref name="moran2005" /&gt; Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This [[water cycle]] is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region.&lt;ref name=hydrologic_cycle /&gt;

The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about {{convert|0.4|C-change|F-change|1}} per degree of latitude from the equator.&lt;ref name=sadava_heller2006 /&gt; Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the [[Tropics|tropical]] (or equatorial), [[Subtropics|subtropical]], [[temperate]] and [[Polar region|polar]] climates.&lt;ref name=climate_zones /&gt;

This latitudinal rule has several anomalies:
* Proximity to oceans moderates the climate. For example, the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] has more moderate climate than similarly northern latitudes of [[northern Canada]].
* The [[wind]] enables this moderating effect. The windward side of a land mass experiences more moderation than the leeward side. In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is west-to-east, and western coasts tend to be milder than eastern coasts. This is seen in Eastern North America and Western Europe, where rough continental climates appear on the east coast on parallels with mild climates on the other side of the ocean.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html |title=Why U.S. East Coast is colder than Europe's West Coast |publisher=Live Science |date=5 April 2011 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the Southern Hemisphere, the prevailing wind is east-to-west, and the eastern coasts are milder.
* The distance from Earth to the Sun varies. Earth is closest to the Sun (at [[perihelion]]) in January, which is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. It is furthest away (at [[aphelion]]) in July, which is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and only 93.55% of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given square area of land than at perihelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the Northern Hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are {{convert|2.3|C-change|F-change|0}} warmer in the Northern Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere under similar conditions.&lt;ref name="Earth at Aphelion"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://spaceweather.com/glossary/aphelion.html |title=Earth at Aphelion |publisher=Space Weather |date=July 2008 |accessdate=7 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The climate is colder at high altitudes than at sea level because of the decreased air density.

The commonly used [[Köppen climate classification]] system has five broad groups ([[tropical climate|humid tropics]], [[arid]], [[humid subtropical climate|humid middle latitudes]], [[Continental climate|continental]] and cold [[polar climate|polar]]), which are further divided into more specific subtypes.&lt;ref name="berger2002" /&gt; The Köppen system rates regions of terrain based on observed temperature and precipitation.

The highest air temperature ever measured on Earth was {{convert|56.7|C|F}} in [[Furnace Creek, California]], in [[Death Valley National Park|Death Valley]], in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-recorded-temperature/ |title=Highest recorded temperature |publisher=Guinness World Records |accessdate=12 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The lowest air temperature ever directly measured on Earth was {{convert|-89.2|C|F}} at [[Vostok Station]] in 1983,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=Walter A |title=The Handy Weather Answer Book |date=1997 |publisher=Visible Ink Press |location=Detroit, Michigan |isbn=978-0-7876-1034-0 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon}}&lt;/ref&gt; but satellites have used remote sensing to measure temperatures as low as {{convert|-94.7|C|F}} in [[East Antarctica]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite newspaper |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/10/coldest-temperature-recorded-earth-antarctica-guinness-book |title=Coldest temperature ever recorded on Earth in Antarctica |journal=The Guardian |date=10 December 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2015 |publisher=Associated Press}}&lt;/ref&gt; These temperature records are only measurements made with modern instruments from the 20th century onwards and likely do not reflect the full range of temperature on Earth.

==== Upper atmosphere ====
[[File:Full moon partially obscured by atmosphere.jpg|thumb|This view from orbit shows the [[full moon]] partially obscured by Earth's atmosphere.]]
Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the [[stratosphere]], [[mesosphere]], and [[thermosphere]].&lt;ref name="atmosphere" /&gt; Each layer has a different [[lapse rate]], defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the [[exosphere]] thins out into the [[magnetosphere]], where the geomagnetic fields interact with the [[solar wind]].&lt;ref name=sciweek2004 /&gt; Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The [[Kármán line]], defined as 100&amp;nbsp;km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and [[outer space]].&lt;ref name=cordoba2004 /&gt;

Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady [[Atmospheric escape|loss of the atmosphere into space]]. Because unfixed [[hydrogen]] has a low [[molecular mass]], it can achieve [[escape velocity]] more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases.&lt;ref name=jas31_4_1118 /&gt; The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially [[redox|reducing]] state to its current [[Redox|oxidizing]] one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere.&lt;ref name=sci293_5531_839 /&gt; Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth.&lt;ref name=abedon1997 /&gt; In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.&lt;ref name=arwps4_265 /&gt;

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}
[[File:Geoids sm.jpg|thumb|Earth's gravity measured by NASA's [[Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment|GRACE]] mission, showing deviations from the [[theoretical gravity]]. Red shows where gravity is stronger than the smooth, standard value, and blue shows where it is weaker.]]
The [[gravity of Earth]] is the [[acceleration]] that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, [[gravitational acceleration]] is approximately {{convert|9.8|m/s2|abbr=on}}. Local differences in [[topography]], [[geology]], and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |first1=A. B. |last1=Watts |first2=S. F. |last2=Daly |title=Long wavelength gravity and topography anomalies |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=9 |pages=415–18 |date=May 1981 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.09.050181.002215 |bibcode=1981AREPS...9..415W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}

The main part of [[Earth's magnetic field]] is generated in the core, the site of a [[Dynamo theory|dynamo]] process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a [[dipole]]. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is {{nowrap|3.05{{e|−5}} [[Tesla (unit)|T]]}}, with a [[magnetic dipole moment]] of {{nowrap|7.79{{e|22}} Am{{sup|2}}}} at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century.&lt;ref name=dipole&gt;{{citation |last1=Olson |first1=Peter |last2=Amit |first2=Hagay |title=Changes in earth's dipole |url=https://pages.jh.edu/~polson1/pdfs/ChangesinEarthsDipole.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=93 |issue=11 |year=2006 |pages=519–542 |doi=10.1007/s00114-006-0138-6 |pmid=16915369 |bibcode=2006NW.....93..519O}}&lt;/ref&gt; The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes [[Geomagnetic secular variation|secular variation]] of the main field and [[geomagnetic reversal|field reversals]] at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago.&lt;ref name=fitzpatrick2006 /&gt;&lt;ref name=campbelwh /&gt;

==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}
[[File:Structure_of_the_magnetosphere_LanguageSwitch.svg|lang=en|thumb|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere. The solar wind flows from left to right|alt=Diagram showing the magnetic field lines of Earth's magnetosphere. The lines are swept back in the anti-solar direction under the influence of the solar wind.]]

The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the [[magnetosphere]]. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.&lt;ref name="Britannica" /&gt; Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic [[bow shock]] precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://sci.esa.int/jump.cfm?oid=40994 |title=Cluster reveals the reformation of the Earth's bow shock |publisher=European Space Agency |first=Arnaud |last=Masson |date=11 May 2007 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Charged particle]]s are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/ |title=The Earth's Plasmasphere |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=14 August 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://plasmasphere.nasa.gov/formed.html |title=How the Plasmasphere is Formed |publisher=NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center |last=Gallagher |first=Dennis L. |date=27 May 2015 |accessdate=16 August 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; the ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field,&lt;ref name="BaumjohannTreumann1997"&gt;{{cite book |title=Basic Space Plasma Physics |publisher=World Scientific |first1=Wolfgang |last1=Baumjohann |first2=Rudolf A. |last2=Treumann |pages=8, 31 |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86094-079-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Van Allen radiation belt]] are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but otherwise contained by the magnetosphere.&lt;ref name="Britannica"&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ionosphere-and-magnetosphere/Magnetosphere |title=Ionosphere and magnetosphere |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |first=Michael B. |last=McElroy |year=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Van Allen"&gt;{{cite book |title=Origins of Magnetospheric Physics |publisher=University of Iowa Press |last=Van Allen |first=James Alfred |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-87745-921-7 |oclc=646887856}}&lt;/ref&gt;

During [[magnetic storm]]s and [[substorm]]s, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the [[Aurora (astronomy)|aurora]].&lt;ref name=stern2005 /&gt;

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}
[[File:EpicEarth-Globespin(2016May29).gif|thumb|right|Earth's rotation imaged by [[Deep Space Climate Observatory|DSCOVR EPIC]] on 29 May 2016, a few weeks before a [[solstice]].]]
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is {{nowrap|86,400 seconds}} of mean solar time ({{nowrap|86,400.0025 [[SI]] seconds}}).&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906 /&gt; Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to [[tidal acceleration|tidal deceleration]], each day varies between {{nowrap|0 and 2 SI [[millisecond|ms]]}} longer&lt;!--than the previous day or the 19th-C day? This construction is ambiguous--&gt;.&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid Service/Prediction of Earth Orientation |journal=IERS Bulletin-A |date=9 April 2015 |volume=28 |issue=15 |url=http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |accessdate=12 April 2015 |format=.DAT file (displays as plaintext in browser) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182157/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Earth's rotation period relative to the [[fixed star]]s, called its ''stellar day'' by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS), is {{nowrap|86,164.0989 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1), or {{nowrap |23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0989{{smallsup|s}}.}}&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="Aoki" /&gt; Earth's rotation period relative to the [[precession (astronomy)|precessing]] or moving mean [[vernal equinox]], misnamed its ''[[sidereal day]]'', is {{nowrap|86,164.0905 seconds}} of mean solar time (UT1) {{nowrap|(23{{smallsup|h}} 56{{smallsup|m}} 4.0905{{smallsup|s}})}}.&lt;ref name=IERS /&gt; Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4&amp;nbsp;ms.&lt;ref name=seidelmann1992 /&gt; The length of the mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005&lt;ref name=iers1623 /&gt; and 1962–2005.&lt;ref name=iers1962 /&gt;

Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the [[celestial equator]], this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same.&lt;ref name=zeilik1998 /&gt;&lt;ref name=angular /&gt;

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}
[[File:PIA23645-Earth-PaleBlueDot-6Bkm-Voyager1-orig19900214-upd20200212.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'' photo taken in 1990 by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' spacecraft showing Earth (center right) from nearly {{convert|3.7|e9mi|e9km|order=flip|abbr=unit}} away, about 5.9 hours at [[light speed]].&lt;ref name="NASA-20200212"&gt;{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited | url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=12 February 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of about {{convert|150|e6km|e6mi|abbr=unit}} every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one [[sidereal year]]. This gives an apparent movement of the Sun eastward with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1°/day, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12&amp;nbsp;hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24&amp;nbsp;hours—a [[Solar time|solar day]]—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]]. The orbital speed of Earth averages about {{convert|29.78|km/s|km/h mph|abbr=on}}, which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about {{convert|12742|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, {{convert|384000|km|mi|abbr=on}}, in about 3.5 hours.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The Moon and Earth orbit a common [[barycenter]] every 27.32&amp;nbsp;days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53&amp;nbsp;days. Viewed from the [[celestial pole|celestial north pole]], the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]]. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.44&amp;nbsp;degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the [[ecliptic]]), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1&amp;nbsp;degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between [[lunar eclipse]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.&lt;ref name="earth_fact_sheet" /&gt;&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet" /&gt;

The [[Hill sphere]], or the sphere of [[Gravity|gravitational]] influence, of Earth is about {{convert|1.5|e6km|mi|abbr=unit}} in radius.&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006 /&gt;&lt;ref group="n" name="hill_radius" /&gt; This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.

Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the [[Milky Way]] and orbits about 28,000&amp;nbsp;[[light-year]]s from its center. It is about 20&amp;nbsp;light-years above the [[galactic plane]] in the [[Orion Arm]].&lt;ref name=nasa20051201 /&gt;

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}
[[File:AxialTiltObliquity.png|thumb|right|Earth's axial tilt (or [[obliquity]]) and its relation to the [[rotation]] axis and [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|plane of orbit]]]]
The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281°&lt;ref name="IERS" /&gt; with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the [[Celestial Poles]]. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with [[summer]] in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] occurring when the [[Tropic of Cancer]] is facing the Sun, and [[winter]] taking place when the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] faces the Sun. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. In northern temperate latitudes, the Sun rises north of true east during the summer solstice, and sets north of true west, reversing in the winter. The Sun rises south of true east in the summer for the southern temperate zone and sets south of true west.

Above the [[Arctic Circle]], an extreme case is reached where there is no daylight at all for part of the year, up to six months at the North Pole itself, a [[polar night]]. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is exactly reversed, with the [[South Pole]] oriented opposite the direction of the North Pole. Six months later, this pole will experience a [[midnight sun]], a day of 24 hours, again reversing with the South Pole.

By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the [[solstice]]s—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the [[equinox]]es, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, [[winter solstice]] currently occurs around 21 December; [[summer solstice]] is near 21 June, [[March equinox|spring equinox]] is around 20 March and [[September equinox|autumnal equinox]] is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped.&lt;ref name=bromberg2008 /&gt;

The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo [[nutation]]; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6&amp;nbsp;years.&lt;ref name=lin2006 /&gt; The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, [[precession|precessing]] around in a complete circle over each 25,800&amp;nbsp;year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a [[tropical year]]. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This [[polar motion]] has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed [[quasiperiodic motion]]. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation.&lt;ref name=fisher19960205 /&gt;

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] occurs around 3 January, and its [[aphelion]] around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as [[Milankovitch cycles]]. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.9%&lt;ref group="n" name="solar_energy" /&gt; in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere.&lt;ref name=williams20051230 /&gt;

A study from 2016 suggested that [[Planet Nine]] tilted all the planets of the [[Solar System]], including Earth, by about six degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/34448-planet-nine-solar-system-tilt.html |title=Did the Mysterious 'Planet Nine' Tilt the Solar System? |work=Space.com |first=Charles Q. |last=Choi |date=19 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Habitability ==
[[File:Moraine Lake 17092005.jpg|thumb|The [[Rocky Mountains]] in Canada overlook [[Moraine Lake]].]]
A planet that can sustain life is termed [[Planetary habitability|habitable]], even if life did not originate there. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex [[Organic compound|organic molecules]] can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain [[metabolism]].&lt;ref name=ab2003 /&gt; The distance of Earth from the Sun, as well as its orbital eccentricity, rate of rotation, axial tilt, geological history, sustaining atmosphere, and magnetic field all contribute to the current climatic conditions at the surface.&lt;ref name=dole1970 /&gt;

=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}
A planet's life forms inhabit [[ecosystem]]s, whose total is sometimes said to form a "biosphere".&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.biodiversidad.gob.mx/v_ingles/planet/whatis_bios.html |title=What is the biosphere? |access-date=28 June 2019 |work=[[Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad|Biodiversidad Mexicana]] |publisher=[[Gobierno de México]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth's biosphere is thought to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about {{val|3.5|u=Gya}}.&lt;ref name="NYT-20131003" /&gt; The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar plants and animals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zmyj6sg/revision/3 |title=Interdependency between animal and plant species |page=3 |work=[[BBC Bitesize]] |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; On land, biomes are separated primarily by differences in latitude, [[elevation|height above sea level]] and [[humidity]]. Terrestrial [[tundra|biomes]] lying within the Arctic or [[Antarctic Circle]]s, at [[Alpine tundra|high altitudes]] or in [[desert|extremely arid areas]] are relatively barren of plant and animal life; [[Latitudinal gradients in species diversity|species diversity]] reaches a peak in [[tropical rainforest|humid lowlands at equatorial latitudes]].&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192 /&gt;

In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.&lt;ref name="NYT-20160725"&gt;{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}
Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.iberdrola.com/environment/overexploitation-of-natural-resources |title=What are the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources? |work=[[Iberdrola]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Those termed [[non-renewable resource]]s, such as [[fossil fuel]]s, only renew over geological timescales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-826-5409-5/page013new.html |title=13. Exploitation of Natural Resources |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=28 June 2019 |journal=[[European Environment Agency]] |publisher=[[European Union]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://sciencing.com/how-are-fossil-fuels-extracted-from-the-ground-12227026.html |title=How Are Fossil Fuels Extracted From the Ground? |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=28 June 2019 |first=Russell |last=Huebsch |work=Sciencing |publisher=[[Leaf Group]] Media}}&lt;/ref&gt; These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/nuclear-basics/electricity-generation-what-are-the-options.aspx |title=Electricity generation – what are the options? |work=[[World Nuclear Association]] |access-date=28 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mineral [[ore]] bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of [[ore genesis]], resulting from actions of [[magmatism]], erosion, and plate tectonics.&lt;ref name="Ramdohr" /&gt; These bodies form concentrated sources for many metals and other useful [[chemical element|elements]].

Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.&lt;ref name=science299_5607_673 /&gt; In 1980, {{convert|5053|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, {{convert|6788|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was grasslands and pasture, and {{convert|1501|e6ha|e6km2 e6sqmi|order=out|abbr=unit}} was cultivated as croplands.&lt;ref name="Turner1990" /&gt; The estimated amount of [[irrigated land]] in 1993 was {{convert|2481250|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Humans also live on the land by using [[building material]]s to construct shelters.

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]
Large areas of Earth's surface are subject to extreme weather such as tropical [[cyclone]]s, [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year.&lt;ref name=walsh2008 /&gt; Many places are subject to earthquakes, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[Types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[blizzard]]s, floods, droughts, [[wildfire]]s, and other calamities and disasters.

Many localized areas are subject to human-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of wildlife, species [[extinction]], [[soil degradation]], [[soil depletion]] and [[erosion]].

There is a [[scientific consensus]] linking human activities to [[global warming]] due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a [[Sea level rise|global rise in average sea levels]].&lt;ref name=un20070202 /&gt;
{{break|2}}

== Human geography ==
&lt;!--Not sure why this is called "human geography" instead of just "Geography"; what kinds of geography are there?--&gt;
{{Main|Human geography|World}}
{{World map indicating continents}}
[[Cartography]], the study and practice of map-making, and [[geography]], the study of the lands, features, inhabitants and phenomena on Earth, have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

[[world population|Earth's human population]] reached approximately seven billion on 31 October 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |title=Various '7 billionth' babies celebrated worldwide |accessdate=31 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111031182613/http://news.yahoo.com/various-7-billionth-babies-celebrated-worldwide-064439018.html |archivedate=31 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Projections indicate that the world's human population will reach 9.2&amp;nbsp;billion in 2050.&lt;ref name=un2006 /&gt; Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. [[Population density#Human population density|Human population density]] varies widely around the world, but a majority live in [[Asia]]. By 2020, 60% of the world's population is expected to be living in urban, rather than rural, areas.&lt;ref name=prb2007 /&gt;

68% of the land mass of the world is in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://phl.upr.edu/library/notes/distributionoflandmassesofthepaleo-earth |title=Distribution of landmasses of the Paleo-Earth |author1=Abel Mendez |date=6 July 2011 |publisher=University of Puerto Rico at Arecibo |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Partly due to the predominance of land mass, 90% of humans live in the northern hemisphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/90-of-people-live-in-the-northern-hemisphere-2012-5 |title=MAP OF THE DAY: Pretty Much Everyone Lives In The Northern Hemisphere |date=4 May 2012 |publisher=businessinsider.com |accessdate=5 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

It is estimated that one-eighth of Earth's surface is suitable for humans to live on&amp;nbsp;– three-quarters of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, leaving one-quarter as land. Half of that land area is desert (14%),&lt;ref name=hessd4_439 /&gt; high mountains (27%),&lt;ref name=biodiv /&gt; or other unsuitable terrains. The northernmost permanent settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], on [[Ellesmere Island]] in [[Nunavut]], Canada.&lt;ref name=cfsa2006 /&gt; (82°28′N) The southernmost is the [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], in Antarctica, almost exactly at the South Pole. (90°S)

[[File:67%C2%BA Per%C3%ADodo de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas (8020913157).jpg|thumb|left|[[Headquarters of the United Nations]] in [[New York City]]]]
Independent sovereign nations claim the planet's entire land surface, except for some parts of Antarctica, a few [[Croatia–Serbia border dispute|land parcels along the Danube]] river's western bank, and the [[Terra nullius|unclaimed area]] of [[Bir Tawil]] between Egypt and Sudan. {{As of|2015}}, there are 193 [[List of sovereign states|sovereign states]] that are [[member states of the United Nations]], plus two [[United Nations General Assembly observers|observer states]] and 72 [[Dependent territory|dependent territories]] and [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited recognition]].&lt;ref name=cia /&gt; Earth has never had a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government with authority over the entire globe, although some nation-states have striven for [[world domination]] and failed.&lt;ref name=kennedy1989 /&gt;

The [[United Nations]] is a worldwide [[intergovernmental organization]] that was created with the goal of intervening in the disputes between nations, thereby avoiding armed conflict.&lt;ref name=uncharter /&gt; The U.N. serves primarily as a forum for international diplomacy and [[international law]]. When the consensus of the membership permits, it provides a mechanism for armed intervention.&lt;ref name=un_int_law /&gt;

The first human to orbit Earth was [[Yuri Gagarin]] on 12 April 1961.&lt;ref name=kuhn2006 /&gt; In total, about 487 people have visited outer space and reached orbit {{as of|2010|07|30|lc=on}}, and, of these, [[Apollo program|twelve]] have walked on the Moon.&lt;ref name=ellis2004 /&gt;&lt;ref name=shayler_vis2005 /&gt;&lt;ref name=wade2008 /&gt; Normally, the only humans in space are those on the [[International Space Station]]. The station's [[List of International Space Station expeditions|crew]], made up of six people, is usually replaced every six months.&lt;ref name=nasa_rg_iss2007 /&gt; The farthest that humans have traveled from Earth is {{convert|400171|km|mi|abbr=on}}, achieved during the [[Apollo 13]] mission in 1970.&lt;ref name="Apollo13History" /&gt;

== Moon ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 0.5em;"
|+ Characteristics
|-
| colspan=2 | [[File:FullMoon2010.jpg|center|200px|[[Full moon]] as seen from Earth's [[Northern Hemisphere]]]]
|-
| '''Diameter''' || {{val|3474.8|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Mass''' || {{val|7.349|e=22|u=kg}}
|-
| '''[[Semi-major axis]]''' || {{val|384400|u=km|fmt=commas}}
|-
| '''Orbital period''' || {{nowrap|27{{smallsup|d}} 7{{smallsup|h}} 43.7{{smallsup|m}}}}
|}
{{Main|Moon}}

The Moon is a relatively large, [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial]], planet-like [[natural satellite]], with a diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is larger relative to the [[dwarf planet]] [[Pluto]]. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's.

The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].
[[File:Earth-Moon.svg|thumb|left|Details of the Earth–Moon system, showing the radius of each object and the Earth–Moon [[barycenter]]. The Moon's axis is located by [[Cassini's laws|Cassini's third law]].]]

Due to their [[Tidal acceleration|tidal interaction]], the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately {{convert|38|mm/yr|in/yr|abbr=on}}. Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23&amp;nbsp;[[Microsecond|µs]]/yr—add up to significant changes.&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207 /&gt; During the [[Devonian]] period, for example, (approximately {{val|410|u=Mya}}) there were 400 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.8 hours.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Lambeck |first=Kurt |title=The Earth's Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and Consequences |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |page=367 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-kiG3uYkoUEC&amp;pg=PA62 |isbn=978-0-521-67330-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. [[Paleontology|Paleontological]] evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon.&lt;ref name=aaa428_261 /&gt; Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting chaotic changes over millions of years, as appears to be the case for Mars.&lt;ref name=nature410_6830_773 /&gt;

Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The [[angular size]] (or [[solid angle]]) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant.&lt;ref name=angular /&gt; This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant-impact hypothesis]], states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.&lt;ref name="canup_asphaug2001b"/&gt;

== Asteroids and artificial satellites ==
[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|thumb|[[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] viewing Earth from the [[ISS]] Cupola, 2010]]
Earth has at least five [[Quasi-satellite|co-orbital asteroids]], including [[3753 Cruithne]] and {{mpl|2002 AA|29}}.&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021 /&gt;&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011 /&gt; A [[Earth trojan|trojan asteroid]] companion, {{mpl|2010 TK|7}}, is librating around the leading [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange triangular point]], L4, in [[Earth's orbit]] around the Sun.&lt;ref name=Connors /&gt;&lt;ref name=Choi /&gt;

The tiny [[near-Earth asteroid]] {{mpl|2006 RH|120}} makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=2006 RH120 ( = 6R10DB9) (A second moon for the Earth?) |url=http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |website=Great Shefford Observatory |publisher=Great Shefford Observatory |accessdate=17 July 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206154817/http://www.birtwhistle.org/Gallery6R10DB9.htm |archivedate=6 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{As of|2018|4}}, there are 1,886 operational, human-made [[satellite]]s orbiting Earth.&lt;ref name=ucs /&gt; There are also inoperative satellites, including [[Vanguard 1]], the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked [[space debris]].&lt;ref group="n" name="space_debris" /&gt; Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}
[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Earthrise]]'', taken in 1968 by [[William Anders]], an astronaut on board [[Apollo&amp;nbsp;8]]]]
The standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross [[circumscribed circle|circumscribed by a circle]], [[File:Earth symbol.svg|18px]],&lt;ref name=liungman2004 /&gt; representing the [[four corners of the world]].

[[Culture|Human cultures]] have developed many views of the planet.&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224b"&gt;{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth is sometimes [[Personification|personified]] as a [[deity]]. In many cultures it is a [[mother goddess]] that is also the primary [[fertility deity]],&lt;ref name=":0"&gt;{{Cite book |title=Thematic Guide to World Mythology |last=Stookey |first=Lorena Laura |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-31505-3 |location=Westport, Conn. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 114–15] |url=https://archive.org/details/thematicguidetow00lore/page/114 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and by the mid-20th century, the [[Gaia hypothesis|Gaia Principle]] compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability.&lt;ref name="vanishing255"&gt;Lovelock, James. ''The Vanishing Face of Gaia''. Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. {{ISBN|978-0-465-01549-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="J1972"&gt;{{cite journal |last=Lovelock |first=J.E. |title=Gaia as seen through the atmosphere |journal=Atmospheric Environment |year=1972 |volume=6 |issue=8 |pages=579–80 |doi=10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5 |issn=1352-2310 |ref=harv |bibcode=1972AtmEn...6..579L}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="lovelock1974"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lovelock |first1=J.E. |last2=Margulis |first2=L. |title=Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere: the Gaia hypothesis |journal=Tellus |year=1974 |volume=26 |series=Series A |issue=1–2 |pages=2–10 |doi=10.1111/j.2153-3490.1974.tb01946.x |issn=1600-0870 |ref=harv |bibcode=1974Tell...26....2L}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Creation myth]]s in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural [[deity]] or deities.&lt;ref name=":0" /&gt;

Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a [[flat Earth]] was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of [[spherical Earth]],&lt;ref name=russell1997 /&gt;&lt;ref name="Burkert1971"&gt;{{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |date=1 June 1972 |title=Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=onepage&amp;q=Pythagoreanism |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-53918-1 |pages=306–308 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001"&gt;{{cite book |last=Kahn |first=Charles H. |date=2001 |title=Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA72&amp;dq=Pythagoreanism#v=snippet&amp;q=Empedocles%20spherical |location=Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-87220-575-8 |page=53 |ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt; which was attributed to both the philosophers [[Pythagoras]] and [[Parmenides]].&lt;ref name="Burkert1971" /&gt;&lt;ref name="Kahn2001" /&gt; By the end of the 5th century BC, the [[sphericity]] of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Dicks |first=D. R. |date=1970 |title=Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-0561-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 68] |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/earlygreekastron0000dick/page/68 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Earth was generally believed to be [[Geocentric model|the center of the universe]] until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was [[heliocentrism|a moving object]], comparable to the other planets in the Solar System.&lt;ref name=arnett20060716 /&gt; Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as [[James Ussher]], who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized [[Earth's age]] was at least many millions of years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Physical Geology: Exploring the Earth |last=Monroe |first=James |publisher=Thomson Brooks/Cole |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-495-01148-4 |location= |pages=263–65 |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |last3=Hazlett |first3=Richard}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]] used [[thermodynamics]] to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400&amp;nbsp;million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and [[Radiometric dating|radioactive dating]] were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=An Equation for Every Occasion: Fifty-Two Formulas and Why They Matter |last=Henshaw |first=John M. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4214-1491-1 |location= |pages=117–18}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth |last=Burchfield |first=Joe D. |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-08043-7 |location= |pages=13–18}}&lt;/ref&gt; The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the [[Apollo program]].&lt;ref name="NYT-20181221"&gt;{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |authorlink=Dennis Overbye |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World – Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |date=21 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=24 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="NYT-20181224a"&gt;{{cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet – Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=25 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://alcalde.texasexes.org/2012/06/neil-degrasse-tyson-on-why-space-matters-watch/ |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson: Why Space Matters |work=[[The Alcalde]] |first=Rose |last=Cahalan |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=21 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}
{{LifeOnEarth}}{{LocationOfEarth}}

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |group="n" |refs=

&lt;ref name=Aoki&gt;The ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".—{{cite journal |last=Aoki |first=S. |title=The new definition of universal time |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=1982 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–61 |bibcode=1982A&amp;A...105..359A |last2=Kinoshita |first2=H. |last3=Guinot |first3=B. |last4=Kaplan |first4=G. H. |last5=McCarthy |first5=D. D. |last6=Seidelmann |first6=P. K.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=apsis&gt;aphelion = ''a'' × (1 + ''e''); perihelion = ''a'' × (1&amp;nbsp;– ''e''), where ''a'' is the semi-major axis and ''e'' is the eccentricity. The difference between Earth's perihelion and aphelion is 5 million kilometers.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=epoch&gt;All astronomical quantities vary, both [[Secular phenomena|secularly]] and [[Frequency|periodically]]. The quantities given are the values at the instant [[J2000.0]] of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=hill_radius&gt;For Earth, the [[Hill radius]] is &lt;math&gt;R_H = a\left ( \frac{m}{3M} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}}&lt;/math&gt;, where ''m'' is the mass of Earth, ''a'' is an astronomical unit, and ''M'' is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{1}{3 \cdot 332,946} \right )^{\frac{1}{3}} = 0.01&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=jaes41_3_379&gt;Including the [[Somali Plate]], which is being formed out of the African Plate. See: {{cite journal |first=Jean |last=Chorowicz |date=October 2005 |title=The East African rift system |journal=[[Journal of African Earth Sciences]] |volume=43 |issue=1–3 |pages=379–410 |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019 |bibcode=2005JAfES..43..379C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sidereal_solar&gt;The number of solar days in a year is one less than the number of [[sidereal day]]s (the time it takes the Earth to revolve exactly 360 degrees around its axis) because a solar day is about 236 seconds longer than a sidereal day. Over a year, this discrepancy adds up to a full sidereal day.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=solar_energy&gt;Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% the energy at aphelion.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=surfacecover&gt;Due to natural fluctuations, ambiguities surrounding [[Ice shelf|ice shelves]], and mapping conventions for [[vertical datum]]s, exact values for land and ocean coverage are not meaningful. Based on data from the [[Vector Map]] and [http://www.landcover.org/ Global Landcover] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326085837/http://www.landcover.org/ |date=26 March 2015 }} datasets, extreme values for coverage of lakes and streams are 0.6% and 1.0% of Earth's surface. The ice shields of [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are counted as land, even though much of the rock that supports them lies below sea level.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=trench_depth&gt;This is the measurement taken by the vessel ''[[Kaikō]]'' in March 1995 and is considered the most accurate measurement to date. See the [[Challenger Deep]] article for more details.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=space_debris&gt;As of 4 January 2018, the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 18,835 artificial objects, mostly debris. See: {{cite journal |url=https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/quarterly-news/pdfs/odqnv22i1.pdf |title=Satellite Box Score |journal=Orbital Debris Quarterly News |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Anz-Meador |editor2-first=Debi |editor2-last=Shoots |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=12 |date=February 2018 |accessdate=18 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

}}

== References ==
&lt;!--
 List alphabetized. Keep it that way!
--&gt;
{{reflist |30em |refs=

&lt;ref name=aaa428_261&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Laskar |first1=J. |last2=Robutel |first2=P. |last3=Joutel |first3=F. |last4=Gastineau |first4=M. |last5=Correia |first5=A.C.M. |last6=Levrard |first6=B. |title=A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |year=2004 |volume=428 |issue=1 |pages=261–85 |bibcode=2004A&amp;A...428..261L |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20041335 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00001603/document}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ab2003&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=September 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312212337/http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/roadmap/g1.html |archivedate=12 March 2012 |title=Astrobiology Roadmap |publisher=NASA, Lockheed Martin |accessdate=10 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=abedon1997&gt;{{cite web |last1=Abedon |first1=Stephen T. |date=31 March 1997 |url=http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129043509/http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol1010.htm |archivedate=29 November 2012 |title=History of Earth |publisher=Ohio State University |accessdate=19 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="age_earth1"&gt;See:
* {{cite book |first1=G.B. |last1=Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{cite web |last=Newman |first=William L. |date=9 July 2007 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |publisher=Publications Services, USGS |accessdate=20 September 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dalrymple |first1=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |year=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–21 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/190/1/205 |accessdate=20 September 2007 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=aj136_5_1906&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Dennis D. |last2=Hackman |first2=Christine |last3=Nelson |first3=Robert A. |title=The Physical Basis of the Leap Second |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=136 |issue=5 |pages=1906–08 |date=November 2008 |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/136/5/1906 |bibcode=2008AJ....136.1906M |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA489427&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ajes38_613&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. L. |year=1991 |title=The persistent myth of crustal growth |journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=613–30 |doi=10.1080/08120099108727995 |bibcode=1991AuJES..38..613A |url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/Armstrong1991.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.527.9577}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen294&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA294 |page=294 |accessdate=13 March 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Allen296&gt;{{cite book |title=Allen's Astrophysical Quantities |last1=Allen |first1=Clabon Walter |last2=Cox |first2=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-387-98746-0 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w8PK2XFLLH8C&amp;pg=PA296 |page=296 |accessdate=17 August 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=amnat163_2_192&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hillebrand |first1=Helmut |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Gradient |journal=American Naturalist |year=2004 |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |url=http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=angular&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=10 February 2006 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planetfact.html |title=Planetary Fact Sheets |publisher=NASA |accessdate=28 September 2008}}—See the apparent diameters on the Sun and Moon pages.&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!---
&lt;ref name=arghg4_143&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Pennock |first1=R. T. |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
---&gt;
&lt;ref name=arnett20060716&gt;{{cite web |first1=Bill |last1=Arnett |date=16 July 2006 |title=Earth |work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more |url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html |accessdate=9 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=arwps4_265&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hunten |first1=D. M. |title=Hydrogen loss from the terrestrial planets |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |year=1976 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=265–92 |bibcode=1976AREPS...4..265H |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.04.050176.001405 |last2=Donahue |first2=T. M}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=as92_324&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=J. B. |last2=Nance |first2=R. D. |title=How do supercontinents assemble? |journal=American Scientist |year=1965 |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=324–33 |doi=10.1511/2004.4.324}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asp2002&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Guinan |first1=E. F. |last2=Ribas |first2=I. |editor=Benjamin Montesinos, Alvaro Gimenez and Edward F. Guinan |title=Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate |work=ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments |location=San Francisco |isbn=1-58381-109-5 |publisher=Astronomical Society of the Pacific |bibcode=2002ASPC..269...85G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_highest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |title=World: Highest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104143844/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature |archivedate=4 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=asu_lowest_temp&gt;{{cite web |url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |title=World: Lowest Temperature |work=[[WMO]] Weather and Climate Extremes Archive |publisher=[[Arizona State University]] |accessdate=7 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616025722/http://wmo.asu.edu/world-lowest-temperature |archivedate=16 June 2010 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="atmosphere"&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=8 October 2003 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/912_liftoff_atm.html |title=Earth's Atmosphere |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="berger2002"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Wolfgang H. |year=2002 |url=http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/cc1syllabus.shtml |title=The Earth's Climate System |publisher=University of California, San Diego |accessdate=24 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bgsa119_1_140&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wilkinson |first1=B. H. |last2=McElroy |first2=B. J. |title=The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation |journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of America |year=2007 |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=140–56 |doi=10.1130/B25899.1 |bibcode=2007GSAB..119..140W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=biodiv&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |title=Themes &amp; Issues |publisher=Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity |accessdate=29 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407011249/http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/default.shtml |archivedate=7 April 2007 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bowring_housch1995&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bowring |first1=S. |last2=Housh |first2=T. |title=The Earth's early evolution |year=1995 |doi=10.1126/science.7667634 |journal=Science |volume=269 |pmid=7667634 |issue=5230 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1535B |pages=1535–40}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="britt2000"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Britt |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |title=Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? |date=25 February 2000 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605231345/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/death_of_earth_000224.html |archivedate=5 June 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bromberg2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Bromberg |first1=Irv |date=1 May 2008 |url=http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |title=The Lengths of the Seasons (on Earth) |publisher=University of Toronto |accessdate=8 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221421/http://www.sym454.org/seasons/ |archive-date=18 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981&gt;{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Geoff C. |last2=Mussett |first2=Alan E. |title=The Inaccessible Earth |edition=2nd |date=1981 |page=[https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 166] |publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis |isbn=978-0-04-550028-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/inaccessibleeart0000brow_r5i2/page/166 }} Note: After Ronov and Yaroshevsky (1969).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005&gt;{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=W. K. |last2=Wohletz |first2=K. H. |year=2005 |url=http://www.lanl.gov/orgs/ees/geodynamics/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm |title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates |publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory |accessdate=2 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=burton20021129&gt;{{cite web |last1=Burton |first1=Kathleen |date=29 November 2002 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2000/00_79AR.html |title=Astrobiologists Find Evidence of Early Life on Land |publisher=NASA |accessdate=5 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=campbelwh&gt;{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Wallace Hall |title=Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003 |location=New York |page=57 |isbn=978-0-521-82206-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001a&gt;{{cite conference |last1=Canup |first1=R. M. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=An impact origin of the Earth-Moon system |conference=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2001 |work=Abstract #U51A-02 |year=2001 |bibcode=2001AGUFM.U51A..02C}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=canup_asphaug2001b&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Canup |first1=R. |last2=Asphaug |first2=E. |title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation |journal=Nature |volume=412 |pages=708–12 |year=2001 |doi=10.1038/35089010 |pmid=11507633 |issue=6848 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/981c7826c50f45595dab316eb5628d1f06fc5eb6 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=carrington&gt;{{cite news |first1=Damian |last1=Carrington |title=Date set for desert Earth |work=BBC News |date=21 February 2000 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/specials/washington_2000/649913.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cazenave_ahrens1995&gt;{{cite book |first1=Anny |last1=Cazenave |authorlink=Anny Cazenave |editor=Ahrens, Thomas J |date=1995 |title=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |journal=Global Earth Physics: A Handbook of Physical Constants |issue=1 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87590-851-9 |chapter-url=http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016024803/http://www.agu.org/reference/gephys/5_cazenave.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2006 |accessdate=3 August 2008 |chapter=Geoid, Topography and Distribution of Landforms |bibcode=1995geph.conf.....A}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cfsa2006&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=15 August 2006 |url=http://www.tscm.com/alert.html |title=Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert |publisher=Information Management Group |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Choi&gt;{{cite web |last1=Choi |first1=Charles Q. |title=First Asteroid Companion of Earth Discovered at Last |url=http://www.space.com/12443-earth-asteroid-companion-discovered-2010-tk7.html |date=27 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |accessdate=27 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=christou_asher2011&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Christou |first1=Apostolos A. |last2=Asher |first2=David J. |date=31 March 2011 |title=A long-lived horseshoe companion to the Earth |arxiv=1104.0036 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18595.x |volume=414 |issue=4 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |pages=2965–2969 |bibcode=2011MNRAS.414.2965C}} See table 2, p. 5.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cia&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=24 July 2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html |title=World |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=5 August 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=espenak_meeus20070207&gt;{{cite web |last1=Espenak |first1=F. |last2=Meeus |first2=J. |date=7 February 2007 |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302112957/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/secular.html |archivedate=2 March 2008 |title=Secular acceleration of the Moon |publisher=NASA |accessdate=20 April 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=gould1994&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Stephan J. |title=The Evolution of Life on Earth |journal=Scientific American |date=October 1994 |url=http://brembs.net/gould.html |accessdate=5 March 2007 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-84 |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=84–91 |pmid=7939569 |bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..84G}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="IERS2004"&gt;{{cite book |accessdate=29 April 2016 |author=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) Working Group |chapter=General Definitions and Numerical Standards |chapter-url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32_009.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |editor-first=Dennis D. |editor-last=McCarthy |editor2-first=Gérard |editor2-last=Petit |url=http://www.iers.org/SharedDocs/Publikationen/EN/IERS/Publications/tn/TechnNote32/tn32.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&amp;v=1 |title=IERS Conventions (2003) |publisher=Verlag des Bundesamts für Kartographie und Geodäsie |work=IERS Technical Note No. 32 |year=2004 |format=PDF |location=Frankfurt am Main |page=12 |isbn=978-3-89888-884-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=IERS&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |date=7 August 2007 |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/models/constants.html |title=Useful Constants |publisher=[[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1623&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |title=IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86400s&amp;nbsp;... since 1623 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003083543/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/lod-1623.html |archivedate=3 October 2008}}—Graph at end.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=iers1962&gt;{{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813203913/http://hpiers.obspm.fr/eop-pc/earthor/ut1lod/figure3.html |archivedate=13 August 2007 |title=IERS Variations in the duration of the day 1962–2005 |publisher=International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) |accessdate=23 September 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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---&gt;

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---&gt;
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&lt;ref name=kring&gt;{{cite web |last1=Kring |first1=David A |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/ |title=Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Laboratory |accessdate=22 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kuhn2006&gt;{{cite book |first1=Betsy |last1=Kuhn |date=2006 |title=The race for space: the United States and the Soviet Union compete for the new frontier |page=34 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-5984-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Lambin2011"&gt;{{Cite journal |first1=Eric F. |last1=Lambin |first2=Patrick |last2=Meyfroidt |title=Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |pages=3465–72 |volume=108 |issue=9 |date=1 March 2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.3465L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1100480108 |pmid=21321211 |pmc=3048112}} See Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lancet365_9462_831&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sharp |first1=David |title=Chimborazo and the old kilogram |journal=The Lancet |date=5 March 2005 |volume=365 |issue=9462 |pages=831–32 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71021-7 |pmid=15752514|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/046472d8f08b476163d09a743aab3db64b9e9cbe }}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=michon2006&gt;{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=Michon |date=24 April 2006 |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/HeatBucket/ |title=Earth's Big heat Bucket |publisher=NASA Earth Observatory |accessdate=14 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name="moon_fact_sheet"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=David R. |date=1 September 2004 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html |title=Moon Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA |accessdate=21 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="moran2005"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Moran |first1=Joseph M. |year=2005 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213184908/http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/weather_worldbook.html |archivedate=13 December 2010 |title=Weather |work=World Book Online Reference Center |publisher=NASA/World Book, Inc |accessdate=17 March 2007 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

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&lt;ref name=uncharter&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |title=U.N. Charter Index |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=23 December 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220011242/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/ |archivedate=20 February 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=usno&gt;{{cite web |title=Selected Astronomical Constants, 2011 |work=The Astronomical Almanac |url=http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826043456/http://asa.usno.navy.mil/SecK/2011/Astronomical_Constants_2011.txt |archivedate=26 August 2013 |accessdate=25 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=USNO_TSD&gt;{{cite web |title=Leap seconds |publisher=Time Service Department, USNO |url=http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312003149/http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html |accessdate=23 September 2008 |archivedate=12 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=vazquez_etal2006&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Vázquez |first1=M. |first2=P. Montañés |last2=Rodríguez |last3=Palle |first3=E. |year=2006 |url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |title=The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets |journal=Lecture Notes and Essays in Astrophysics |volume=2 |pages=49 |accessdate=21 March 2007 |bibcode=2006LNEA....2...49V |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/617ElSxyd?url=http://www.iac.es/folleto/research/preprints/files/PP06024.pdf |archive-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=VSOP87&gt;{{cite journal |title=Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=282 |issue=2 |pages=663–83 |date=February 1994 |last1=Simon |first1=J.L. |last2=Bretagnon |first2=P. |last3=Chapront |first3=J. |last4=Chapront-Touzé |first4=M. |last5=Francou |first5=G. |last6=Laskar |first6=J. |bibcode=1994A&amp;A...282..663S}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wade2008&gt;{{cite web |last1=Wade |first1=Mark |date=30 June 2008 |url=http://www.astronautix.com/articles/aststics.htm |accessdate=23 December 2008 |title=Astronaut Statistics |publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=walsh2008&gt;{{cite book |first1=Patrick J. |last=Walsh |title=Oceans and human health: risks and remedies from the seas |page=212 |editor1=Sharon L. Smith |editor2=Lora E. Fleming |publisher=Academic Press, 2008 |isbn=978-0-12-372584-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6J5hlcjFaAC&amp;pg=PA212 |date=16 May 1997}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=ward_brownlee2002&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Peter D. |last2=Brownlee |first2=Donald |date=2002 |title=The Life and Death of Planet Earth: How the New Science of Astrobiology Charts the Ultimate Fate of Our World |publisher=Times Books, Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6781-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780805067811}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="watersource"&gt;{{cite journal |display-authors=1 |last1=Morbidelli |first1=A. |last2=Chambers |first2=J. |last3=Lunine |first3=J. I. |last4=Petit |first4=J. M. |last5=Robert |first5=F. |last6=Valsecchi |first6=G. B. |last7=Cyr |first7=K. E. |title=Source regions and time scales for the delivery of water to Earth |journal=Meteoritics &amp; Planetary Science |year=2000 |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=1309–20 |bibcode=2000M&amp;PS...35.1309M |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2000.tb01518.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wekn_bulakh2004&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wenk |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last2=Bulakh |first2=Andreĭ Glebovich |title=Minerals: their constitution and origin |page=359 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="WGS-84-2"&gt;{{cite web |first1=Sigurd |last1=Humerfelt |date=26 October 2010 |title=How WGS 84 defines Earth |url=http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |accessdate=29 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104419/http://home.online.no/~sigurdhu/WGS84_Eng.html |archivedate=24 April 2011 |df=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=whitehouse20021021&gt;{{cite news |first1=David |last1=Whitehouse |title=Earth's little brother found |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2002 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2347663.stm |accessdate=31 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Williams1994"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=James G. |title=Contributions to the Earth's obliquity rate, precession, and nutation |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=108 |year=1994 |page=711 |issn=0004-6256 |doi=10.1086/117108 |bibcode=1994AJ....108..711W}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams20051230&gt;{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Jack |date=20 December 2005 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/weather/tg/wseason/wseason.htm |title=Earth's tilt creates seasons |work=USA Today |accessdate=17 March 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=williams_santosh2004&gt;{{cite book |first1=John James William |last1=Rogers |last2=Santosh |first2=M. |date=2004 |title=Continents and Supercontinents |page=48 |publisher=Oxford University Press US |isbn=978-0-19-516589-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=zeilik1998&gt;{{cite book |last1=Zeilik |first1=M. |last2=Gregory |first2=S. A. |title=Introductory Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=56 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |isbn=978-0-03-006228-5 |date=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name="Luzum2011"&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Luzum |first1=Brian |last2=Capitaine |first2=Nicole |last3=Fienga |first3=Agnès |last4=Folkner |first4=William |last5=Fukushima |first5=Toshio |last6=Hilton |first6=James |last7=Hohenkerk |first7=Catherine |last8=Krasinsky |first8=George |last9=Petit |first9=Gérard |last10=Pitjeva |first10=Elena |last11=Soffel |first11=Michael |last12=Wallace |first12=Patrick |display-authors=5 |title=The IAU 2009 system of astronomical constants: The report of the IAU working group on numerical standards for Fundamental Astronomy |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=110 |issue=4 |date=August 2011 |pages=293–304 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.110..293L |doi=10.1007/s10569-011-9352-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=Narottam2008&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4kASIoKym8C&amp;pg=PA40 |title=Climate Change and International Politics |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |first=Narottam |last=Gaan |page=40 |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-7835-641-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite web|title=This is one place on Earth where no life can exist|language=en|website=CNN|date=22 November 2019|author=Ashley Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/22/world/earth-no-life-scn/}}
* {{cite book |first=Neil F. |last=Comins |date=2001 |title=Discovering the Essential Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwjlZjFNFlAC |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=W. H. Freeman |bibcode=2003deu..book.....C |isbn=978-0-7167-5804-4 |oclc=52082611}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |Earth |commons=Category:Earth}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-4|2012-06-13|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 01).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 02).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 03).ogg|EARTH - WIKIPEDIA SPOKEN ARTICLE (Part 04).ogg}}
* [http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/earth/?ar_a=1 ''National Geographic'' encyclopedic entry about Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130511235712/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Earth Earth&amp;nbsp;– Profile]&amp;nbsp;– [http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ Solar System Exploration]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/HowFast.pdf Earth&amp;nbsp;– Speed through space&amp;nbsp;– &lt;!---between 0.8 – 1.9 M mph---&gt;about 1 million miles an hour]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]] &amp; ([[Wikipedia:Reference desk/Archives/Science/2019 July 20#How fast are we moving through space?|WP discussion]])
* [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/earthandsun/earthshape.html Earth&amp;nbsp;– Climate Changes Cause Shape to Change]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430041323/http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Coll/weekly.htm Earth&amp;nbsp;– Astronaut Photography Gateway]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ Earth Observatory]&amp;nbsp;– [[NASA]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100724114711/http://www.astronomycast.com/stars/episode-51-earth/ Earth&amp;nbsp;– Audio (29:28)&amp;nbsp;– Cain/Gay&amp;nbsp;– Astronomy Cast (2007)]
* Earth&amp;nbsp;– Videos&amp;nbsp;– International Space Station:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74mhQyuyELQ Video (01:02)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth (time-lapse)
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6ahFFFQBZY Video (00:27)]&amp;nbsp;– Earth and [[aurora]]s (time-lapse)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey]&amp;nbsp;– [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]
* [https://www.google.com/maps/@36.6233227,-44.9959756,5662076m/data=!3m1!1e3 Google Earth 3D], interactive map
* [https://thehappykoala.github.io/Harmony-of-the-Spheres/#/category/Solar%20System/scenario/The%20Earth%20and%20Moon%20System Interactive 3D visualisation of the Sun, Earth and Moon system]
* [http://portal.gplates.org GPlates Portal] (University of Sydney)

{{Earth}}
{{Navboxes
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|list =
{{Solar System}}
{{Earth's location}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
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[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>08a2162cbdf9073d45a1cdaa4b2e4308e60a8245</sha1>
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  <revision>
    <id>32</id>
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    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
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    <comment>Replaced content with "'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, mo..."</comment>
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    <text bytes="8929" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}


== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}


{{Earth}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Other articles related to Earth
|list =
{{Solar System}}
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Earth| ]]
[[Category:Global natural environment]]
[[Category:Habitable zone planets]]
[[Category:Nature]]
[[Category:Planets of the Solar System]]
[[Category:Terrestrial planets]]</text>
    <sha1>2b26f90d75d3b0b2d6703230251591400e29ffaf</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>33</id>
    <parentid>32</parentid>
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    <text bytes="8425" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}


== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Celestial sphere]]
* [[Earth phase]]
* [[Earth physical characteristics tables]]
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Earth system science]]
* [[List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System]]
* [[Outline of Earth]]
* [[Timeline of natural history]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
{{div col end}}</text>
    <sha1>b3b34f2b408f445fc9cc167db025aa53ee81ad32</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>34</id>
    <parentid>33</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:49:02Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="8095" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}


== See also ==</text>
    <sha1>df6b6f528ec46ef6d9aadedc7feb06a9f4314b42</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>35</id>
    <parentid>34</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:49:53Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="8078" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}</text>
    <sha1>48cc6df30dd7780ca0fc83292294056b90a15dc7</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>36</id>
    <parentid>35</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:50:55Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="8094" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}

[[Earth mass|Earth's mass]] is approximately {{val|5.97|e=24|ul=kg}} (5,970 [[yottagram|Yg]]). It is composed mostly of [[iron]] (32.1%), [[oxygen]] (30.1%), [[silicon]] (15.1%), [[magnesium]] (13.9%), [[sulphur]] (2.9%), [[nickel]] (1.8%), [[calcium]] (1.5%), and [[aluminum]] (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to [[mass segregation]], the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulphur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;

The most common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all [[oxide]]s: chlorine, sulphur, and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides, principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.&lt;ref name=brown_mussett1981 /&gt;&lt;ref name=pnas71_12_6973 /&gt;&lt;ref name=EB1911&gt;{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Petrology |volume=21 |page=328 |first=John Smith |last=Flett}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>5f9a73acbcfdbcd8455a4ba4057b93e8bbc5e67f</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>37</id>
    <parentid>36</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:52:15Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="7026" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"
|+Chemical composition of the crust&lt;ref name="Rudnick2003"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Continental Crust |journal=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=R. L. |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |last1=Rudnick |first2=S. |last2=Gao |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=3 |pages=1–64 |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/03016-4 |isbn=978-0-08-043751-4 |bibcode=2003TrGeo...3....1R}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="White2014"&gt;{{cite book |chapter=Composition of the Oceanic Crust |title=Treatise on Geochemistry |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=New York |first1=W. M. |last1=White |first2=E. M. |last2=Klein |authorlink2=Emily Klein |editor1-first=H. D. |editor1-last=Holland |editor2-first=K. K. |editor2-last=Turekian |volume=4 |pages=457–496 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00315-6 |isbn=978-0-08-098300-4 |hdl=10161/8301}}&lt;/ref&gt;
!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>54964ce41cdabbec835db73fd3af326978dc3fe0</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>38</id>
    <parentid>37</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:53:23Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="6081" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ [[List of tectonic plates|Earth's major plates]]&lt;ref name=brown_wohletz2005 /&gt;
|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|+ Estimated human land use, 2000&lt;ref name="Lambin2011" /&gt;
|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>1ab2282a59e2f7ea1ef910a3c825f503acd1f2aa</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>39</id>
    <parentid>38</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:54:30Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5942" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>a0b9a2b76e18a6dfee9f01bec446db12a96c05ed</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>40</id>
    <parentid>39</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T16:56:04Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5926" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Earth's axis of rotation]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing [[season]]s on Earth. The [[Gravity|gravitational]] interaction between Earth and the Moon causes [[tide]]s, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and [[Tidal acceleration|gradually slows its rotation]]. Earth is the densest planet in the [[Solar System]] and the largest and most massive of the four [[terrestrial planet|rocky planet]]s. 


== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>4d5f6f263f7f729874af42ff8dd0f3fb5dbb8195</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>41</id>
    <parentid>40</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T17:00:52Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5820" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Kei's axis]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, causing the [[season]]s of Kei. [[Gravity|Gravitational interactions]] between Kei and Kos cause [[tide]]s, stabilize Earth's orientation on its axis, and slows it's rotation. Kei is the only [[terrestrial]] planet in the solar system and the second densest body.


== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Origin of life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Chemical composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Heat ===


=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}


=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Weather and climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}


=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetic field ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}

=== Orbit ===
{{Main|Earth's orbit}}

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Biosphere ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources and land use ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>2a5593de4750645258df196ff09d5037624049c0</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>42</id>
    <parentid>41</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T17:10:47Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5708" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Kei's axis]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, causing the [[season]]s of Kei. [[Gravity|Gravitational interactions]] between Kei and Kos cause [[tide]]s, stabilize Earth's orientation on its axis, and slows it's rotation. Kei is the only [[terrestrial]] planet in the solar system and the second densest body.


== Name and etymology ==

== Chronology ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Elemental composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetism ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}


=== Seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Ecology ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>317cd85742dcaddfc2a0dd2d918b9db746f0e431</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>43</id>
    <parentid>42</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T17:11:37Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5705" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Kei's axis]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, causing the [[season]]s of Kei. [[Gravity|Gravitational interactions]] between Kei and Kos cause [[tide]]s, stabilize Earth's orientation on its axis, and slows it's rotation. Kei is the only [[terrestrial]] planet in the solar system and the second densest body.


== Name and etymology ==

== History ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Elemental composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetism ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}


=== Seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Ecology ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>1c053c66721b572b9cb7dae2db39262cd590af25</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="">
  <title>Template:Infobox planet</title>
  <ns>10</ns>
  <id>3</id>
  <revision>
    <id>16</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:30:01Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "{{infobox | class       = vcard | titleclass  = fn org | title       = {{{name|&lt;includeonly&gt;{{PAGENAMEBASE}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;}}} {{{symbol|}}} | image       = {{#invoke:InfoboxIm..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="15728" xml:space="preserve">{{infobox
| class       = vcard
| titleclass  = fn org
| title       = {{{name|&lt;includeonly&gt;{{PAGENAMEBASE}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;}}} {{{symbol|}}}
| image       = {{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image={{{image|}}}|size={{{image_size|}}}|alt={{{image_alt|}}}}}
| caption     = {{{caption|}}}
| headerstyle = {{#if:{{{background|{{{bgcolour|}}}}}}|background-color:{{{background|{{{bgcolour|}}}}}}|background-color:#E0CCFF}}
| labelstyle  = max-width:{{#if:{{{label_width|}}}|{{{label_width|}}}|11em}};

| header1     = {{#if:{{{discoverer|}}}{{{discovery_site|}}}{{{discovered|}}}{{{discovery_method|}}}|Discovery{{{discovery_ref|}}} }}

| label2      = [[List of minor planet discoverers|Discovered&amp;nbsp;by]]
|  data2      = {{{discoverer|}}}
| label3      = [[List of observatory codes|Discovery&amp;nbsp;site]]
|  data3      = {{{discovery_site|}}}
| label4      = Discovery&amp;nbsp;date
|  data4      = {{{discovered|}}}
| label5      = {{longitem|[[Methods of detecting exoplanets|Detection method]]}}
|  data5      = {{{discovery_method|}}}

| header10    = {{#if:{{{mpc_name|{{{mp_name|}}}}}}{{{named_after|}}}{{{alt_names|}}}{{{mp_category|}}}{{{pronounce|}}}{{{pronounced|}}}{{{adjective|}}}{{{adjectives|}}}|{{#if:{{{extrasolarplanet|{{{exosolar planets|}}}}}}|[[Exoplanet#Nomenclature|Designations]]|Designations}} }}

| label11     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|[[Minor planet designation|MPC&amp;nbsp;designation]]|Designation}}}}
|  data11     = {{{mpc_name|{{{mp_name|}}}}}}
| label12     = Pronunciation
|  data12     = {{{pronounce|{{{pronounced|}}}}}}
| label13     = {{longitem|Named after}}
|  data13     = {{{named_after|}}}
| label14     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|[[Provisional designation in astronomy|Alternative designations]]|[[Provisional designation in astronomy|Alternative names]]}}}}
|  data14     = {{{alt_names|}}}
| label15     = {{longitem|[[Minor planet#Populations|Minor&amp;nbsp;planet category]]}}
|  data15     = {{{mp_category|}}}
| label16     = [[List of adjectivals and demonyms of astronomical bodies|Adjectives]]
|  data16     = {{{adjectives|{{{adjective|}}}}}}

| header20    = {{#if:{{{orbit_diagram|}}}{{{epoch|}}}{{{uncertainty|}}}{{{observation_arc|}}}{{{earliest_precovery_date|}}}{{{aphelion|}}}{{{perihelion|}}}{{{periapsis|}}}{{{apoapsis|}}}{{{apoastron|}}}{{{periastron|}}}{{{semimajor|}}}{{{mean_orbit_radius|}}}{{{eccentricity|}}}{{{period|}}}{{{synodic_period|}}}{{{avg_speed|}}}{{{mean_anomaly|}}}{{{inclination|}}}{{{angular_dist|}}}{{{asc_node|}}}{{{long_periastron|}}}{{{time_periastron|}}}{{{arg_peri|}}}{{{semi-amplitude|}}}{{{satellite_of|}}}{{{group|}}}{{{satellites|}}}{{{star|}}}{{{moid|}}}{{{mercury_moid|}}}{{{venus_moid|}}}{{{mars_moid|}}}{{{jupiter_moid|}}}{{{saturn_moid|}}}{{{uranus_moid|}}}{{{neptune_moid|}}}|[[Osculating orbit|Orbital characteristics]]{{{orbit_ref|}}} }}

|  data21     = {{{orbit_diagram|}}}
|  data22     = {{#if:{{{epoch|}}} |[[Epoch (astronomy)|Epoch]] {{{epoch}}}}}
|  data23     = {{#if:{{{uncertainty|}}} | [[Uncertainty parameter]] {{{uncertainty}}}}}
| label24     = [[Observation arc]]
|  data24     = {{{observation_arc|}}}
| label25     = Earliest [[precovery]] date
|  data25     = {{{earliest_precovery_date|}}}
| label26     = {{#switch:{{{apsis}}} |apsis|gee|(apsis)=[[Apsis|Apo{{{apsis}}}]] |[[Perihelion and aphelion|Ap{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}]]}}
|  data26     = {{{aphelion|}}}
| label27     = [[Perihelion and aphelion|Peri{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}]]
|  data27     = {{{perihelion|}}}
| label28     = [[Apsis|Peri{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|apsis}}]]
|  data28     = {{{periapsis|}}}
| label29     = {{#switch:{{{apsis}}} |helion|astron=[[Apsis|Ap{{{apsis}}}]] |[[Apsis|Apo{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|apsis}}]]}}
|  data29     = {{{apoapsis|}}}
| label30     = [[Apsis|Periastron]]
|  data30     = {{{periastron|}}}
| label31     = [[Apsis|Apoastron]]
|  data31     = {{{apoastron|}}}
| label32     = {{longitem|[[Semi-major and semi-minor axes|Semi-major axis]]}}
|  data32     = {{{semimajor|}}}
| label33     = {{longitem|Mean orbit [[radius]]}}
|  data33     = {{{mean_orbit_radius|}}}
| label34     = [[Orbital eccentricity|Eccentricity]]
|  data34     = {{{eccentricity|}}}
| label35     = {{longitem|[[Orbital period]]}}
|  data35     = {{{period|}}}
| label36     = {{longitem|[[Orbital period|Synodic period]]}}
|  data36     = {{{synodic_period|}}}
| label37     = {{longitem|Average [[orbital speed]]}}
|  data37     = {{{avg_speed|}}}
| label38     = {{longitem|[[Mean anomaly]]}}
|  data38     = {{{mean_anomaly|}}}
| label39     = {{longitem|[[Mean motion]]}}
|  data39     = {{{mean_motion|}}}
| label40     = [[Orbital inclination|Inclination]]
|  data40     = {{{inclination|}}}
| label41     = {{longitem|[[Angular distance]]}}
|  data41     = {{{angular_dist|}}}
| label42     = {{longitem|[[Longitude of the ascending node|Longitude&amp;nbsp;of ascending&amp;nbsp;node]]}}
|  data42     = {{{asc_node|}}}
| label43     = {{longitem|[[Longitude of the periapsis|Longitude&amp;nbsp;of]] [[Apsis|periastron]]}}
|  data43     = {{{long_periastron|}}}
| label44     = {{longitem|[[Apsis|Time&amp;nbsp;of periastron]]}}
|  data44     = {{{time_periastron|}}}
| label45     = {{longitem|[[Argument of periapsis|Argument&amp;nbsp;of peri{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}]]}}
|  data45     = {{{arg_peri|}}}
| label46     = {{nowrap|[[Amplitude|Semi-amplitude]]}}
|  data46     = {{{semi-amplitude|}}}
| label47     = [[Natural satellite|Satellite&amp;nbsp;of]]
|  data47     = {{{satellite_of|}}}
| label48     = [[Irregular moon#Group|Group]]
|  data48     = {{{group|}}}
| label49     = {{#switch:{{{allsatellites|}}} |yes|true=[[Natural satellite|Satellite]]s |Known [[Natural satellite|satellite]]s}}
|  data49     = {{{satellites|}}}
| label50     = Star
|  data50     = {{{star|}}}
| label51     = Earth&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data51     = {{{moid|}}}
| label52     = Mercury&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data52     = {{{mercury_moid|}}}
| label53     = Venus&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data53     = {{{venus_moid|}}}
| label54     = Mars&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data54     = {{{mars_moid|}}}
| label55     = Jupiter&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data55     = {{{jupiter_moid|}}}
| label56     = Saturn&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data56     = {{{saturn_moid|}}}
| label57     = Uranus&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data57     = {{{uranus_moid|}}}
| label58     = Neptune&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data58     = {{{neptune_moid|}}}
| label59     = [[Tisserand's parameter|T&lt;sub&gt;Jupiter&lt;/sub&gt;]]
|  data59     = {{{tisserand|}}}

| header60    = {{#if:{{{p_semimajor|}}}{{{p_eccentricity|}}}{{{p_mean_motion|}}}{{{p_inclination|}}}{{{node_rate|}}}{{{perihelion_rate|}}}|[[Proper orbital elements]]{{{p_orbit_ref|}}} }}

| label61     = {{longitem|Proper [[Semi-major and semi-minor axes|semi-major axis]]}}
|  data61     = {{#if:{{{p_semimajor|}}} |{{{p_semimajor}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Astronomical unit|AU]]}}
| label62     = {{longitem|Proper [[Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]]}}
|  data62     = {{{p_eccentricity|}}}
| label63     = {{longitem|Proper [[Orbital inclination|inclination]]}}
|  data63     = {{{p_inclination|}}}
| label64     = {{longitem|Proper [[mean motion]]}}
|  data64     = {{#if:{{{p_mean_motion|}}} |{{{p_mean_motion}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Degree (angle)|deg]]{{\}}[[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]]}}
| label65     = {{longitem|Proper [[orbital period]]}}
|  data65     = {{#if:{{{p_mean_motion|}}}|{{#expr:360/{{{p_mean_motion|1}}} round 5}} [[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]]&lt;br /&gt;({{#expr:365.25*360/{{{p_mean_motion|1}}} round 3}} [[day|d]]) }}
| label66     = {{longitem|Precession of [[Apsis|perihelion]]}}
|  data66     = {{#if:{{{perihelion_rate|}}}|{{{perihelion_rate}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Arcsecond|arcsec]]{{\}}[[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]] }}
| label67     = {{longitem|Precession&amp;nbsp;of the [[Longitude of the ascending node|ascending&amp;nbsp;node]]}}
|  data67     = {{#if:{{{node_rate|}}}|{{{node_rate}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Arcsecond|arcsec]]{{\}}[[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]]}}

| header70    = {{#if:{{{dimensions|}}}{{{mean_diameter|}}}{{{mean_radius|}}}{{{equatorial_radius|}}}{{{polar_radius|}}}{{{flattening|}}}{{{circumference|}}}{{{surface_area|}}}{{{volume|}}}{{{mass|}}}{{{density|}}}{{{surface_grav|}}}{{{moment_of_inertia_factor|}}}{{{escape_velocity|}}}{{{rotation|}}}{{{sidereal_day|}}}{{{rot_velocity|}}}{{{axial_tilt|}}}{{{right_asc_north_pole|}}}{{{declination|}}}{{{pole_ecliptic_lat|}}}{{{pole_ecliptic_lon|}}}{{{albedo|}}}{{{single_temperature|}}}{{{temp_name1|}}}{{{temp_name2|}}}{{{temp_name3|}}}{{{temp_name4|}}}{{{spectral_type|}}}{{{magnitude|}}}{{{abs_magnitude|}}}{{{angular_size|}}}|{{anchor|Infobox Physical characteristics}}{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}| [[Standard asteroid physical characteristics|Physical characteristics]]|Physical characteristics}}{{{physical_ref|}}} }}

| label71     = Dimensions
|  data71     = {{{dimensions|}}}
| label72     = {{longitem|Mean diameter}}
|  data72     = {{{mean_diameter|}}}
| label73     = {{longitem|Mean radius}}
|  data73     = {{{mean_radius|}}}
| label74     = {{longitem|[[Equator]]ial radius}}
|  data74     = {{{equatorial_radius|}}}
| label75     = {{longitem|[[Geographical pole|Polar]] radius}}
|  data75     = {{{polar_radius|}}}
| label76     = [[Flattening]]
|  data76     = {{{flattening|}}}
| label77     = Circumference
|  data77     = {{{circumference|}}}
| label78     = {{longitem|[[Spheroid#Surface area|Surface area]]}}
|  data78     = {{{surface_area|}}}
| label79     = [[Volume]]
|  data79     = {{{volume|}}}
| label80     = [[Mass]]
|  data80     = {{{mass|}}}
| label81     = {{longitem|Mean [[density]]}}
|  data81     = {{{density|}}}
| label82     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|Equatorial [[Standard asteroid physical characteristics#Surface gravity|surface&amp;nbsp;gravity]]|[[Surface gravity]]}}}}
|  data82     = {{{surface_grav|}}}
| label83     = {{longitem|[[Moment of inertia factor]]}}
|  data83     = {{{moment_of_inertia_factor|}}}
| label84     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}} |Equatorial [[escape velocity]] |[[Escape velocity]]}}}}
|  data84     = {{{escape_velocity|}}}
| label85     = {{longitem|[[Rotation period]]}}
|  data85     = {{{rotation|}}}
| label86     = {{longitem|Sidereal [[rotation period]]}}
|  data86     = {{{sidereal_day|}}}
| label87     = {{longitem|Equatorial rotation&amp;nbsp;velocity}}
|  data87     = {{{rot_velocity|}}}
| label88     = {{longitem|[[Axial tilt]]}}
|  data88     = {{{axial_tilt|}}}
| label89     = {{longitem|North&amp;nbsp;pole {{nowrap|[[right ascension]]}}}}
|  data89     = {{{right_asc_north_pole|}}}
| label90     = {{longitem|North&amp;nbsp;pole [[declination]]}}
|  data90     = {{{declination|}}}
| label91     = {{longitem|Pole [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic latitude]]}}
|  data91     = {{{pole_ecliptic_lat|}}}
| label92     = {{longitem|Pole [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic longitude]]}}
|  data92     = {{{pole_ecliptic_lon|}}}
| label93     = {{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}} |{{longitem|[[Geometric albedo]]}} |[[Albedo]]}}
|  data93     = {{{albedo|}}}
| label94     = [[Temperature]]
|  data94     = {{{single_temperature|}}}

|  data100    = {{#if:{{{temp_name1|}}}{{{temp_name2|}}}{{{temp_name3|}}}{{{temp_name4|}}}|
&lt;table style="border-spacing: 0px; width:100%; border:none; background-color:#f9f9f9; margin:0; text-align:left; line-height:1.2em; white-space:nowrap"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="width:33%; padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;Surface [[temperature|temp.]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;min&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;mean&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;max&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;{{#if:{{{temp_name1|}}}|&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name1}}}&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{min_temp_1|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{mean_temp_1|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{max_temp_1|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;}}{{#if:{{{temp_name2|}}}|&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name2}}}&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{min_temp_2|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{mean_temp_2|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{max_temp_2|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;}}{{#if:{{{temp_name3|}}}|&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name3}}}&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{min_temp_3|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{mean_temp_3|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{max_temp_3|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;}}{{#if:{{{temp_name4|}}}|&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name4}}}&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{min_temp_4|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{mean_temp_4|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{max_temp_4|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;}}
&lt;/table&gt;}}

| label101    = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|[[Asteroid spectral types|Spectral type]]|Spectral type}}}}
|  data101    = {{{spectral_type|}}}
| label102    = {{longitem|[[Asteroid family]]}}
|  data102    = {{{family|}}}
| label103    = {{longitem|[[Apparent magnitude]]}}
|  data103    = {{{magnitude|}}}
| label104    = {{longitem|[[Absolute magnitude#Solar System bodies (H)|Absolute magnitude&amp;nbsp;''(H)'']]}}
|  data104    = {{{abs_magnitude|}}}
| label105    = {{longitem|[[Angular diameter]]}}
|  data105    = {{{angular_size|}}}

| header110   = {{#if:{{{atmosphere|}}}{{{scale_height|}}}{{{atmosphere_composition|}}}|Atmosphere{{{atmosphere_ref|}}} }}

| label111    = {{longitem|Surface [[Atmospheric pressure|pressure]]}}
|  data111    = {{{surface_pressure|}}}
| label112    = {{longitem|[[Scale height]]}}
|  data112    = {{{scale_height|}}}
| label113    = [[Atmospheric chemistry#Atmospheric composition|Composition by volume]]
|  data113    = {{{atmosphere_composition|}}}

| below       = &lt;includeonly&gt;{{#if:{{{note|}}}||{{reflist|group="note"}} }}&lt;/includeonly&gt;

}}{{#invoke:Check for unknown parameters|check|unknown={{main other|[[Category:Pages using infobox planet with unknown parameters|_VALUE_{{PAGENAME}}]]}}|preview=Page using [[Template:Infobox planet]] with unknown parameter "_VALUE_"|ignoreblank=y| abs_magnitude | adjective | adjectives | albedo | allsatellites | alt_names | angular_dist | angular_size | aphelion | apoapsis | apsis | apoastron | arg_peri | asc_node | atmosphere | atmosphere_composition | atmosphere_ref | avg_speed | axial_tilt | background | bgcolour | caption | circumference | declination | density | dimensions | discovered | discoverer | discovery_method | discovery_ref | discovery_site | earliest_precovery_date | eccentricity | epoch | equatorial_radius | escape_velocity | exosolar planets | extrasolarplanet | family | flattening | group | image | image_alt | image_size | inclination | jupiter_moid | label_width | long_periastron | magnitude | mars_moid | mass | max_temp_1 | max_temp_2 | max_temp_3 | max_temp_4 | mean_anomaly | mean_diameter | mean_motion | mean_orbit_radius | mean_radius | mean_temp_1 | mean_temp_2 | mean_temp_3 | mean_temp_4 | mercury_moid | min_temp_1 | min_temp_2 | min_temp_3 | min_temp_4 | minorplanet | moid | moment_of_inertia_factor | mp_category | mp_name | mpc_name | name | named_after | neptune_moid | node_rate | note | observation_arc | orbit_diagram | orbit_ref | p_eccentricity | p_inclination | p_mean_motion | p_orbit_ref | p_semimajor | periapsis | periastron | perihelion | perihelion_rate | period | physical_ref | polar_radius | pole_ecliptic_lat | pole_ecliptic_lon | pronounce | pronounced | right_asc_north_pole | rot_velocity | rotation | satellite_of | satellites | saturn_moid | scale_height | semi-amplitude | semimajor | sidereal_day | single_temperature | spectral_type | star | surface_area | surface_grav | surface_pressure | symbol | synodic_period | temp_name1 | temp_name2 | temp_name3 | temp_name4 | time_periastron | tisserand | uncertainty | uranus_moid | venus_moid | volume }}&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{documentation}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    <sha1>f41f7838ca779d543fd09dbd883a20ff2c2e6b49</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>17</id>
    <parentid>16</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T14:31:41Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="13695" xml:space="preserve">{{infobox
| class       = vcard
| titleclass  = fn org
| title       = {{{name|&lt;includeonly&gt;{{PAGENAMEBASE}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;}}} {{{symbol|}}}
| image       = {{#invoke:InfoboxImage|InfoboxImage|image={{{image|}}}|size={{{image_size|}}}|alt={{{image_alt|}}}}}
| caption     = {{{caption|}}}
| headerstyle = {{#if:{{{background|{{{bgcolour|}}}}}}|background-color:{{{background|{{{bgcolour|}}}}}}|background-color:#E0CCFF}}
| labelstyle  = max-width:{{#if:{{{label_width|}}}|{{{label_width|}}}|11em}};

| header1     = {{#if:{{{discoverer|}}}{{{discovery_site|}}}{{{discovered|}}}{{{discovery_method|}}}|Discovery{{{discovery_ref|}}} }}

| label2      = [[List of minor planet discoverers|Discovered&amp;nbsp;by]]
|  data2      = {{{discoverer|}}}
| label3      = [[List of observatory codes|Discovery&amp;nbsp;site]]
|  data3      = {{{discovery_site|}}}
| label4      = Discovery&amp;nbsp;date
|  data4      = {{{discovered|}}}
| label5      = {{longitem|[[Methods of detecting exoplanets|Detection method]]}}
|  data5      = {{{discovery_method|}}}

| header10    = {{#if:{{{mpc_name|{{{mp_name|}}}}}}{{{named_after|}}}{{{alt_names|}}}{{{mp_category|}}}{{{pronounce|}}}{{{pronounced|}}}{{{adjective|}}}{{{adjectives|}}}|{{#if:{{{extrasolarplanet|{{{exosolar planets|}}}}}}|[[Exoplanet#Nomenclature|Designations]]|Designations}} }}

| label11     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|[[Minor planet designation|MPC&amp;nbsp;designation]]|Designation}}}}
|  data11     = {{{mpc_name|{{{mp_name|}}}}}}
| label12     = Pronunciation
|  data12     = {{{pronounce|{{{pronounced|}}}}}}
| label13     = {{longitem|Named after}}
|  data13     = {{{named_after|}}}
| label14     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|[[Provisional designation in astronomy|Alternative designations]]|[[Provisional designation in astronomy|Alternative names]]}}}}
|  data14     = {{{alt_names|}}}
| label15     = {{longitem|[[Minor planet#Populations|Minor&amp;nbsp;planet category]]}}
|  data15     = {{{mp_category|}}}
| label16     = [[List of adjectivals and demonyms of astronomical bodies|Adjectives]]
|  data16     = {{{adjectives|{{{adjective|}}}}}}

| header20    = {{#if:{{{orbit_diagram|}}}{{{epoch|}}}{{{uncertainty|}}}{{{observation_arc|}}}{{{earliest_precovery_date|}}}{{{aphelion|}}}{{{perihelion|}}}{{{periapsis|}}}{{{apoapsis|}}}{{{apoastron|}}}{{{periastron|}}}{{{semimajor|}}}{{{mean_orbit_radius|}}}{{{eccentricity|}}}{{{period|}}}{{{synodic_period|}}}{{{avg_speed|}}}{{{mean_anomaly|}}}{{{inclination|}}}{{{angular_dist|}}}{{{asc_node|}}}{{{long_periastron|}}}{{{time_periastron|}}}{{{arg_peri|}}}{{{semi-amplitude|}}}{{{satellite_of|}}}{{{group|}}}{{{satellites|}}}{{{star|}}}{{{moid|}}}{{{mercury_moid|}}}{{{venus_moid|}}}{{{mars_moid|}}}{{{jupiter_moid|}}}{{{saturn_moid|}}}{{{uranus_moid|}}}{{{neptune_moid|}}}|[[Osculating orbit|Orbital characteristics]]{{{orbit_ref|}}} }}

|  data21     = {{{orbit_diagram|}}}
|  data22     = {{#if:{{{epoch|}}} |[[Epoch (astronomy)|Epoch]] {{{epoch}}}}}
|  data23     = {{#if:{{{uncertainty|}}} | [[Uncertainty parameter]] {{{uncertainty}}}}}
| label24     = [[Observation arc]]
|  data24     = {{{observation_arc|}}}
| label25     = Earliest [[precovery]] date
|  data25     = {{{earliest_precovery_date|}}}
| label26     = {{#switch:{{{apsis}}} |apsis|gee|(apsis)=[[Apsis|Apo{{{apsis}}}]] |[[Perihelion and aphelion|Ap{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}]]}}
|  data26     = {{{aphelion|}}}
| label27     = [[Perihelion and aphelion|Peri{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}]]
|  data27     = {{{perihelion|}}}
| label28     = [[Apsis|Peri{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|apsis}}]]
|  data28     = {{{periapsis|}}}
| label29     = {{#switch:{{{apsis}}} |helion|astron=[[Apsis|Ap{{{apsis}}}]] |[[Apsis|Apo{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|apsis}}]]}}
|  data29     = {{{apoapsis|}}}
| label30     = [[Apsis|Periastron]]
|  data30     = {{{periastron|}}}
| label31     = [[Apsis|Apoastron]]
|  data31     = {{{apoastron|}}}
| label32     = {{longitem|[[Semi-major and semi-minor axes|Semi-major axis]]}}
|  data32     = {{{semimajor|}}}
| label33     = {{longitem|Mean orbit [[radius]]}}
|  data33     = {{{mean_orbit_radius|}}}
| label34     = [[Orbital eccentricity|Eccentricity]]
|  data34     = {{{eccentricity|}}}
| label35     = {{longitem|[[Orbital period]]}}
|  data35     = {{{period|}}}
| label36     = {{longitem|[[Orbital period|Synodic period]]}}
|  data36     = {{{synodic_period|}}}
| label37     = {{longitem|Average [[orbital speed]]}}
|  data37     = {{{avg_speed|}}}
| label38     = {{longitem|[[Mean anomaly]]}}
|  data38     = {{{mean_anomaly|}}}
| label39     = {{longitem|[[Mean motion]]}}
|  data39     = {{{mean_motion|}}}
| label40     = [[Orbital inclination|Inclination]]
|  data40     = {{{inclination|}}}
| label41     = {{longitem|[[Angular distance]]}}
|  data41     = {{{angular_dist|}}}
| label42     = {{longitem|[[Longitude of the ascending node|Longitude&amp;nbsp;of ascending&amp;nbsp;node]]}}
|  data42     = {{{asc_node|}}}
| label43     = {{longitem|[[Longitude of the periapsis|Longitude&amp;nbsp;of]] [[Apsis|periastron]]}}
|  data43     = {{{long_periastron|}}}
| label44     = {{longitem|[[Apsis|Time&amp;nbsp;of periastron]]}}
|  data44     = {{{time_periastron|}}}
| label45     = {{longitem|[[Argument of periapsis|Argument&amp;nbsp;of peri{{#if:{{{apsis|}}}|{{{apsis}}}|helion}}]]}}
|  data45     = {{{arg_peri|}}}
| label46     = {{nowrap|[[Amplitude|Semi-amplitude]]}}
|  data46     = {{{semi-amplitude|}}}
| label47     = [[Natural satellite|Satellite&amp;nbsp;of]]
|  data47     = {{{satellite_of|}}}
| label48     = [[Irregular moon#Group|Group]]
|  data48     = {{{group|}}}
| label49     = {{#switch:{{{allsatellites|}}} |yes|true=[[Natural satellite|Satellite]]s |Known [[Natural satellite|satellite]]s}}
|  data49     = {{{satellites|}}}
| label50     = Star
|  data50     = {{{star|}}}
| label51     = Earth&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data51     = {{{moid|}}}
| label52     = Mercury&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data52     = {{{mercury_moid|}}}
| label53     = Venus&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data53     = {{{venus_moid|}}}
| label54     = Mars&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data54     = {{{mars_moid|}}}
| label55     = Jupiter&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data55     = {{{jupiter_moid|}}}
| label56     = Saturn&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data56     = {{{saturn_moid|}}}
| label57     = Uranus&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data57     = {{{uranus_moid|}}}
| label58     = Neptune&amp;nbsp;[[Minimum orbit intersection distance|MOID]]
|  data58     = {{{neptune_moid|}}}
| label59     = [[Tisserand's parameter|T&lt;sub&gt;Jupiter&lt;/sub&gt;]]
|  data59     = {{{tisserand|}}}

| header60    = {{#if:{{{p_semimajor|}}}{{{p_eccentricity|}}}{{{p_mean_motion|}}}{{{p_inclination|}}}{{{node_rate|}}}{{{perihelion_rate|}}}|[[Proper orbital elements]]{{{p_orbit_ref|}}} }}

| label61     = {{longitem|Proper [[Semi-major and semi-minor axes|semi-major axis]]}}
|  data61     = {{#if:{{{p_semimajor|}}} |{{{p_semimajor}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Astronomical unit|AU]]}}
| label62     = {{longitem|Proper [[Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]]}}
|  data62     = {{{p_eccentricity|}}}
| label63     = {{longitem|Proper [[Orbital inclination|inclination]]}}
|  data63     = {{{p_inclination|}}}
| label64     = {{longitem|Proper [[mean motion]]}}
|  data64     = {{#if:{{{p_mean_motion|}}} |{{{p_mean_motion}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Degree (angle)|deg]]{{\}}[[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]]}}
| label65     = {{longitem|Proper [[orbital period]]}}
|  data65     = {{#if:{{{p_mean_motion|}}}|{{#expr:360/{{{p_mean_motion|1}}} round 5}} [[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]]&lt;br /&gt;({{#expr:365.25*360/{{{p_mean_motion|1}}} round 3}} [[day|d]]) }}
| label66     = {{longitem|Precession of [[Apsis|perihelion]]}}
|  data66     = {{#if:{{{perihelion_rate|}}}|{{{perihelion_rate}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Arcsecond|arcsec]]{{\}}[[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]] }}
| label67     = {{longitem|Precession&amp;nbsp;of the [[Longitude of the ascending node|ascending&amp;nbsp;node]]}}
|  data67     = {{#if:{{{node_rate|}}}|{{{node_rate}}}&amp;nbsp;[[Arcsecond|arcsec]]{{\}}[[Julian year (astronomy)|yr]]}}

| header70    = {{#if:{{{dimensions|}}}{{{mean_diameter|}}}{{{mean_radius|}}}{{{equatorial_radius|}}}{{{polar_radius|}}}{{{flattening|}}}{{{circumference|}}}{{{surface_area|}}}{{{volume|}}}{{{mass|}}}{{{density|}}}{{{surface_grav|}}}{{{moment_of_inertia_factor|}}}{{{escape_velocity|}}}{{{rotation|}}}{{{sidereal_day|}}}{{{rot_velocity|}}}{{{axial_tilt|}}}{{{right_asc_north_pole|}}}{{{declination|}}}{{{pole_ecliptic_lat|}}}{{{pole_ecliptic_lon|}}}{{{albedo|}}}{{{single_temperature|}}}{{{temp_name1|}}}{{{temp_name2|}}}{{{temp_name3|}}}{{{temp_name4|}}}{{{spectral_type|}}}{{{magnitude|}}}{{{abs_magnitude|}}}{{{angular_size|}}}|{{anchor|Infobox Physical characteristics}}{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}| [[Standard asteroid physical characteristics|Physical characteristics]]|Physical characteristics}}{{{physical_ref|}}} }}

| label71     = Dimensions
|  data71     = {{{dimensions|}}}
| label72     = {{longitem|Mean diameter}}
|  data72     = {{{mean_diameter|}}}
| label73     = {{longitem|Mean radius}}
|  data73     = {{{mean_radius|}}}
| label74     = {{longitem|[[Equator]]ial radius}}
|  data74     = {{{equatorial_radius|}}}
| label75     = {{longitem|[[Geographical pole|Polar]] radius}}
|  data75     = {{{polar_radius|}}}
| label76     = [[Flattening]]
|  data76     = {{{flattening|}}}
| label77     = Circumference
|  data77     = {{{circumference|}}}
| label78     = {{longitem|[[Spheroid#Surface area|Surface area]]}}
|  data78     = {{{surface_area|}}}
| label79     = [[Volume]]
|  data79     = {{{volume|}}}
| label80     = [[Mass]]
|  data80     = {{{mass|}}}
| label81     = {{longitem|Mean [[density]]}}
|  data81     = {{{density|}}}
| label82     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}}|Equatorial [[Standard asteroid physical characteristics#Surface gravity|surface&amp;nbsp;gravity]]|[[Surface gravity]]}}}}
|  data82     = {{{surface_grav|}}}
| label83     = {{longitem|[[Moment of inertia factor]]}}
|  data83     = {{{moment_of_inertia_factor|}}}
| label84     = {{longitem|{{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}} |Equatorial [[escape velocity]] |[[Escape velocity]]}}}}
|  data84     = {{{escape_velocity|}}}
| label85     = {{longitem|[[Rotation period]]}}
|  data85     = {{{rotation|}}}
| label86     = {{longitem|Sidereal [[rotation period]]}}
|  data86     = {{{sidereal_day|}}}
| label87     = {{longitem|Equatorial rotation&amp;nbsp;velocity}}
|  data87     = {{{rot_velocity|}}}
| label88     = {{longitem|[[Axial tilt]]}}
|  data88     = {{{axial_tilt|}}}
| label89     = {{longitem|North&amp;nbsp;pole {{nowrap|[[right ascension]]}}}}
|  data89     = {{{right_asc_north_pole|}}}
| label90     = {{longitem|North&amp;nbsp;pole [[declination]]}}
|  data90     = {{{declination|}}}
| label91     = {{longitem|Pole [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic latitude]]}}
|  data91     = {{{pole_ecliptic_lat|}}}
| label92     = {{longitem|Pole [[Ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptic longitude]]}}
|  data92     = {{{pole_ecliptic_lon|}}}
| label93     = {{#if:{{{minorplanet|}}} |{{longitem|[[Geometric albedo]]}} |[[Albedo]]}}
|  data93     = {{{albedo|}}}
| label94     = [[Temperature]]
|  data94     = {{{single_temperature|}}}

|  data100    = {{#if:{{{temp_name1|}}}{{{temp_name2|}}}{{{temp_name3|}}}{{{temp_name4|}}}|
&lt;table style="border-spacing: 0px; width:100%; border:none; background-color:#f9f9f9; margin:0; text-align:left; line-height:1.2em; white-space:nowrap"&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="width:33%; padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;Surface [[temperature|temp.]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;min&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;mean&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-right:0.25em; text-align:left"&gt;max&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;{{#if:{{{temp_name1|}}}|&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name1}}}&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{min_temp_1|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{mean_temp_1|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{max_temp_1|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;}}{{#if:{{{temp_name2|}}}|&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name2}}}&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{min_temp_2|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{mean_temp_2|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;{{{max_temp_2|}}}&lt;/td&gt;
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&lt;th style="padding-left:1.0em"&gt;{{{temp_name3}}}&lt;/th&gt;
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{{more citations needed|date=September 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Acholi people|Acholi]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Acholi language|Acholi]] 
| [[Northern Region, Uganda|Acholiland]] ([[Uganda]], [[South Sudan]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Acholi|title=Acholi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Afemai people|Afemai]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Afenmai language|Afenmai]]
| [[Edo State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.5 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Afar people|Afar]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Afar language|Afar]]
| [[Afar Region|Afaria]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]])
| 2.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aar|title=Afar|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} Figure taken by adding the ethnic populations of Ethiopia and Djibouti with the Eritrean population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Afrikaners]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Dutch language|Dutch]] → [[Afrikaans]]
| [[South Africa]] ([[Northern Cape|Northern]] and [[Western Cape]]), [[Namibia]]
| 3.5 million&lt;ref&gt;''"Afrikaners constitute nearly three million out of approximately 53 million inhabitants of the Republic of South Africa, plus as many as half a million in diaspora."'' [http://www.unpo.org/members/8148 Afrikaner] – Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. Retrieved 24 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Boer]]s, [[White Namibians]], [[White people in Botswana|White Botswanans]], [[Coloureds]] (including [[Cape Coloureds]], [[Griqua people|Griqua]], [[Baster]]s, [[Oorlam people|Oorlam]], [[Goffal]])
| [[Christianity]] → [[Calvinism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Agaw people|Agaw]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Agaw languages|Agaw]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"&gt;Language family; with some exceptions, all speakers of the various languages within this family are typically seen as one singular ethnicity.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Horn of Africa]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"&gt;Non-contiguous homeland. Throughout most of their history (if not their entire history), this ethnic group have lived in separate, isolated communities scattered throughout the countries/subdivisions listed.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 1.5 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Bilen people|Bilen]], [[Xamtanga language|Ximre]], [[Awi people|Awi]], [[Qemant people|Qemant]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Ahom people|Ahom]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Ahom language|Ahom]]&lt;ref name="Assam" group="note"&gt;[[People of Assam|Assamese ethnic group]]; the vast majority only speak [[Assamese language|Assamese]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Assam]] ([[India]])
| 1.3–8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aho|title=Ahom|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 January 2019}} Possible number of Assamese speakers claiming to be of Ahom descent.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] → [[Aimaq dialect|Aimaq]]
| [[Afghanistan]]
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aiq|title=Aimaq|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=11 December 2018}} Total Aimaq users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aimaq Hazara]], [[Firozkohi]], [[Jamshidi (Aimaq tribe)|Jamshidi]], [[Kipchak (Aimaq tribe)|Kipchak]], [[Timuri]], [[Taymani (Aimaq tribe)|Taymani]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Aja people|Aja]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] → [[Adja language|Adja]]
| [[Benin]], [[Togo]]
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ajg|title=Aja|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=11 December 2018}} Total Adja users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[West African Vodun|Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Adjoukrou people|Adjoukrou]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Adjukru language|Adjukru]]
| [[Dabou]] ([[Ivory Coast]])
| 0.1 million
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Akan people|Akan]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Akan language|Akan]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;As the Akan language has only [[Akan Orthography Committee|recently been standardized]], the majority of them still speak their [[Central Tano languages|local dialects]], which are usually considered by linguists to be separate languages altogether.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] ([[Ghana]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to historical migrations, about half of the Akan population reside in [[Ivory Coast]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|iv|Cote D'Ivoire}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gh|Ghana}} Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations. Akan residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Twi]] (including [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] and [[Akuapem people|Akuapem]]), [[Fante people|Fante]], [[Abbé people|Abbé]], [[Abidji people|Abidji]], [[Ahafo]], [[Ahanta people|Ahanta]], [[Akwamu]], [[Akyem]], [[Anyi people|Anyi]], [[Aowin]], [[Assin]], [[Attie people|Attie]], [[Avatime people|Avatime]], [[Avikam people|Avikam]], [[Baoulé people|Baoulé]], [[Abron tribe|Brong]], [[Chakosi people|Chakosi]], [[Evalue people|Evalue]], [[M'Bato]], [[Nzema people|Nzema]], [[Sefwi people|Sefwi]], [[Tchaman]], [[Wassa]], [[Abure language|Abure]], [[Alladian language|Alladian]], [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaians]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda|Antiguans and Barbudans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]] and [[Curaçao]]ans
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Akha people|Akha]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]] → [[Hani language|Hani]] → [[Akha language|Akha]]
| [[Yunnan]] ([[China]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Some time around 1860s, many Akha have been migrating to Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand. Today, the majority reside outside of China.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ahk|title=Akha|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 January 2019}} Total users of Akha in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Akeu language|Akeu]]
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Albanians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Albanian language|Albanian]] 
| [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]]
| 4.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sqi|title=Albanian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Albanian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ghegs]], [[Tosks]] (including [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] and [[Arvanites]]), [[Kosovo Albanians|Kosovars]], [[Cham Albanians]], [[Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian Albanians]], along with [[Albanian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Albanians in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Albanians in Germany|Germany]], [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]] and the [[Albanian Americans|United States]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Alur people|Alur]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Alur language|Alur]]
| [[West Nile sub-region]] ([[Uganda]]), [[Ituri Province|Ituri]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 1.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/alz|title=Alur|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 April 2019}} Total Alur users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ambonese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Ambonese Malay]]
| [[Ambon Island]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abs|title=Malay, Ambonese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 February 2019}} Total first-language Ambonese Malay users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Calvinism|Protestantism]] 
|-
| [[Ambundu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kimbundu]]
| [[Angola]]
| 2.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mbundu|title=Mbundu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Angolar Creole|Angolares]] and [[Curaçao]]ans
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Amhara people|Amhara]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Amharic]] 
| [[Amhara Region|Amharia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 19.9 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"&gt;[http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf "Census 2007"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214221803/http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|date=February 14, 2012}}. Ethiopian population only. Figures taken from Urban + Rural population in Table 5. The Surma population is combined with the Me’enite and the Mursi populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
|  
| [[Christianity]] → [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Amis people|Amis]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Formosan languages|Formosan]] → [[Amis language|Amis]]
| [[Taiwan]] ([[Taitung County|Taitung]] and [[Hualien County|Hualien]] Counties)
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/asoc/201502150011.aspx|title=Amis remains Taiwan's biggest aboriginal tribe at 37.1% of total|first1=Hsieh|last1=Chia-chen|first2=Jeffrey|last2=Wu|date=15 February 2015|website=FocusTaiwan.tw|publisher=The Central News Agency|accessdate= 30 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|  
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Anaang people|Anaang]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ibibio-Efik languages|Ibibio-Efik]] → [[Anaang language|Anaang]]
| [[Akwa Ibom State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 2.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/anw|title=Anaang|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|  
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Anuak people|Anuak]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Anuak language|Anuak]]
| [[Anuak Zone|Anuakia]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[Boma State|Boma]] ([[South Sudan]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anywa|title=Anywa|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Apache]]
| [[Dené–Yeniseian languages|Dené–Yeniseian]] → [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] → [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Apachean]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;With the exception of Navajo, all Apachean speakers are seen as one ethnicity. However, due to a history of [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|forced assimilation]] by the American government, the majority can only speak [[American English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Apacheria]] ([[United States]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"&gt;{{cite web|title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf|website=census.gov|accessdate=7 March 2017}} American population only. Figure taken using the American Indian and Alaska Native tribal grouping alone population from Table 7. The Muscogee figure is taken by combining the Creek and Seminole population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chiricahua]], [[Jicarilla Apache|Jicarilla]], [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]], [[Mescalero]], [[Salinero Apaches|Salinero]], [[Plains Apache]], [[Western Apache people|Western Apache]]
| [[Native American religion]] → [[Native American Church]]
|-
| [[Arabs]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Arabic]]
| [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] ([[Yemen]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Between [[Rashidun Caliphate|632]] and [[Anarchy at Samarra|861]], the Arabs [[Caliphate|controlled]] most of [[West Asia]] and [[North Africa]], with Bedouin tribes forming in what is now Algeria, Sudan, and Iraq. Today, the majority of the [[Arab world]] is outside of Arabia.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 450 million&lt;ref&gt;Margaret Kleffner Nydell [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC&amp;printsec Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times], Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bedouin]]s, [[Druze]], [[Shirazi people|Shirazis]] (including [[Zanzibar]]is, [[Demographics of the Comoros|Comorians]] and [[Mayotte|Maores]]), [[Baggara]], [[Arab-Berber]]s (including [[Demographics of Algeria|Algerians]], [[Demographics of Libya|Libyans]], [[Demographics of Mauritania|Mauritanians]], [[Moroccans]], [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] and [[Tunisian people|Tunisians]]), [[Bahrani people|Bahrainis]], [[Sudanese Arabs|Sudanese]], [[Egyptians]],  [[Iraqis]] (including [[Marsh Arabs]]), [[Demographics of Jordan|Jordanians]], [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] (including [[Maronites]]), [[Demographics of Kuwait|Kuwaitis]], [[Omanis]] (including [[Dhofar Governorate|Dhofaris]]), [[Demographics of Qatar|Qataris]], [[Saudis]] (including [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]], [[Hejaz]]is, and [[Najd]]is), [[Syrians]] (including [[Alawites]]), [[Palestinians]], [[Emiratis]], [[Demographics of Yemen|Yemenis]] (including [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]], [[Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic|Ta'izzis-Adenis]], [[Al-Akhdam|Akhdam]], [[Sanʽani Arabic|Sanʽani]], and [[Tihamah|Tihami]]), along with [[Arab diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Arab Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Arab Indonesians|Indonesia]], [[Iranian Arabs|Iran]], [[Arabs in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Arabs in Pakistan|Pakistan]] (including [[Mugheri]]), [[Arab Venezuelans|Venezuela]], [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], and [[Arab Americans|the United States]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Argobba people|Argobba]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Argobba language|Argobba]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Argobba have typically been a merchant community and usually trades with other ethnic groups; recently, these factors have resulted in the majority only speaking Amharic or Oromo.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ethiopia]] ([[Afar Region|Afar]], [[Harari Region|Harari]], [[Amhara Region|Amhara]], and [[Oromia Region|Oromia]] Regions)&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Armenians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Armenian language|Armenian]] 
| [[Greater Armenia]] ([[Armenia]], [[Republic of Artsakh]], [[Turkey]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;During the [[Armenian Genocide]] that occurred in the Turkish part of Greater Armenia (usually called [[Western Armenia]]), many Armenians fled to Russia, France, and the United States. Today, the majority reside outside of Greater Armenia, and Western Armenia no longer has an openly Armenian population (the Hemshin largely avoid identifying themselves as being Armenian, while the vast majority of people that are openly Armenian in Turkey reside in [[Istanbul]], which is not a part of Western Armenia).&lt;/ref&gt;
| 6&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Dennis J.D. Sandole|title=Peace and Security in the Postmodern World: The OSCE and Conflict Resolution|date=24 January 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134145713|page=182|quote=The nearly 3 million Armenians in Armenia (and 3–4 million in the Armenian Diaspora worldwide) 'perceive' the nearly 8 million Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan as 'Turks.'}}&lt;/ref&gt;–8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Von Voss|first=Huberta|title=Portraits of Hope: Armenians in the Contemporary World|year=2007|publisher=Berghahn Books|location=New York|isbn=9781845452575|page=xxv|quote=...there are some 8 million Armenians in the world... }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Armenians in Turkey|Turkish Armenians]] (including [[Armenians in Istanbul]], [[Hemshin peoples|Hemshin]] and [[Hidden Armenians]]), [[Cherkesogai]], [[Armeno-Tats]], [[Hayhurum]] [[Karabakh dialect|Karabakhis]], along with [[Armenian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Armenians in Russia|Russia]], the [[Armenian Americans|United States]], [[Armenians in France|France]], [[Armenians in Georgia|Georgia]] (including the [[Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti|Javakheti Armenians]]), [[Armenians in Lebanon|Lebanon]], and [[Armenians in Germany|Germany]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Aromanians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] 
| [[Balkans]] ([[Greece]], [[Albania]], [[North Macedonia]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Puig|first=Lluis Maria de|title=Report: Aromanians|publisher=Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|date=17 January 1997|id=Doc. 7728|url=https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H-Xref-ViewHTML.asp?FileID=7661&amp;lang=en}} Aromanian speaking population. The idea that the Aromanians are a separate ethnicity is a minority opinion within the Aromanian community; they are much more likely to either see themselves as being a Romanian subgroup or belonging to the same ethnicity as the majority ethnic group of their residing country.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[List of Aromanian settlements|Significant populations]] in [[Aromanians of Greece|Greece]], [[Aromanians in Albania|Albania]], and [[Aromanians in the Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Neo-Aramaic languages|Neo-Aramaic]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The [[Aramaic language]] morphed into the Neo-Aramaic languages around 1200 AD. Whether the majority of the Assyrians are still speaking these languages is unclear, however.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Assyrian homeland|Assyria]] ([[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Modern Assyria have seen long periods of violence throughout the region, some of which (such as the [[Assyrian genocide]] and the [[Persecution of Christians by ISIL]]) have been directed against the Assyrians themselves. This has caused many to flee to places such as the United States and Sweden; it is believed that the majority now reside outside of the [[Middle East]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 2&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat16.pdf|author=Ronald Roberson|title=The Eastern Catholic Churches 2016|publisher=Catholic Near East Welfare Association|accessdate=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020094357/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat16.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=dead}} Information sourced from ''Annuario Pontificio'' 2016 edition&lt;/ref&gt;–4 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://unpo.org/members/7859 "Assyria"]. ''Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization''. unpo.org.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chaldean Catholics|Chaldeans]], [[Tyari]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Iraqis]] (including and [[Marsh Arabs]]), [[Syrians]] (including [[Alawites]]), [[Antiochian Greek Christians|Rûm]], along with [[Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Assyrian Americans|United States]], [[Assyrians/Syriacs in Sweden|Sweden]], and [[Arameans in Israel|Israel]]
| [[Syriac Christianity|Christianity]]
|-
| [[Atoni]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Timoric languages|Timoric]] → [[Uab Meto language|Uab Meto]]
| [[West Timor]] ([[Indonesia]]), [[Oecusse]] ([[East Timor]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Atoni|title=Atoni|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Amarasi]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Atyap people|Atyap]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] → [[Tyap language|Atyap]]
| [[Kaduna State]] ([[South Sudan]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Austrians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[German language|German]] → [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]
| [[Austria]]
| 8.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bar|title=Bavarian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=29 January 2019}} Figure taken by adding the Austrian and Italian population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[South Tyrol]]eans, along with significant populations in [[Austrian Americans|United States]], [[Austrian Canadians|Canada]], and [[Austrian Australians|Australia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Avars (Caucasus)|Avars]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Avar language|Avar]]
| [[Avaristan]] ([[Russia]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref name="Russia"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/tab5.xls|title=Russian Census 2010: Population by ethnicity|accessdate=2013-04-16|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424000000/http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/tab5.xls|archivedate=2012-04-24}} Russian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Awadhi people|Awadhis]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] → [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]
| [[Awadh]] ([[India]])
| 3.9 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"&gt;[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf 2011 Indian census], ''Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues.'' Indian population only. Figure taken using the language grouping population or the specific mother tongue population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Barhai]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Aymara people|Aymara]]
| [[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]] → [[Aymara language|Aymara]]
| [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Chile]] 
| 3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aymara|title=Aymara|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Bolivians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Azerbaijanis]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]
| [[Azerbaijan]], [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] ([[Iran]])
| 30–35 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=YJwsAQAAIAAJ&amp;dq=30+million+South+Azerbaijan&amp;q=30-35|title=The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East|author=Sela, Avraham|publisher=Continuum|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8264-1413-7|page=197|quote=30–35 million|author-link=Avraham Sela}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ayrums]], [[Bayat (tribe)|Bayat]], [[Karadaghis]], [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajars]], [[Küresünni]], [[Qarapapaqs]], [[Shahsevan]], [[Terekeme people|Terekeme]], [[Yeraz]], [[Afshar people|Afshar]], [[Iranian Azerbaijanis]], along with [[Azerbaijani diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Azerbaijanis in Georgia|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijanis in Russia|Russia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Bahnar people|Bahnar]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Bahnar language|Bahnar]]
| [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] ([[Vietnam]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"&gt;{{cite web|title=The 2009 Vietnam Population and Housing Census: Completed Results|url=http://www.gso.gov.vn/Modules/Doc_Download.aspx?DocID=12724|publisher=General Statistics Office of Vietnam: Central Population and Housing Census Steering Committee|date=June 2010|accessdate=26 November 2013|page=134|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018040824/http://www.gso.gov.vn/Modules/Doc_Download.aspx?DocID=12724|archivedate=18 October 2013}} Vietnamese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Bai people|Bai]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]→ [[Bai language|Bai]]
| [[Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture]] ([[China]])
| 1.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-bai.htm|title=The Bai ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=30 January 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Bakossi people|Bakossi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Manenguba language|Akoose]]
| [[Bakossi Mountains]] ([[Cameroon]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://allbakossiconference.yolasite.com/about-us.php|title=BAKOSSI: INFORMATION NOTE|author=S. N. Ejedepang-Koge|publisher=THE ALL BAKOSSI CONFERENCE|accessdate=2011-02-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]

|-
| [[Balanta people|Balanta]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Balanta language|Balanta]] 
| [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]]
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ble|title=Balanta-Kentohe|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 January 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bjt|title=Balanta-Ganja|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 January 2018}} Figure taken by combining the total users of Balanta-Kentohe in all countries with the Balanta-Ganja population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Balinese people|Balinese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Balinese language|Balinese]]
| [[Bali]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 3.9 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Bali Aga]]
| [[Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Balkars]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Karachay-Balkar language|Balkar]]
| [[Kabardino-Balkaria]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Baloch people|Balochs]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Balochi language|Balochi]]
| [[Balochistan]] ([[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]])
| 10 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bal|title=Baluchi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=8 June 2019}} Population total of all languages of the Baluchi [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Askani (tribe)|Askani]], [[Bajkani]], [[Bangulzai tribe|Bangulzai]], [[Barazani]], [[Bhurgari]], [[Bugti]], [[Buledi]], [[Chandio]], [[Darzada]], [[Dehwar]], [[Dodai tribe|Dodai]], [[Dombki]], [[Gabol]], [[Ghazini]], [[Jamali (tribe)|Jamali]], [[Jatoi (tribe)|Jatoi]], [[Kalmati]], [[Khetran]], [[Kunara]], [[Langhani]], [[Lango tribe|Lango]], [[Lashkrani]], [[Loharani]], [[Lund (Baloch tribe)|Lund]], [[Marri (tribe)|Marri]], [[Mazari tribe|Mazari]], [[Mengal]], [[Mirali (Baloch tribe)|Mirali]], [[Mugheri]], [[Muhammad Shahi]], [[Mullazai tribe|Mullazai]], [[Nothazai]], [[Pitafi]], [[Qaisrani]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Sadozai (Baloch tribe)|Sadozai]], [[Sethwi]], [[Shaikhzadah]], [[Talpur]], [[Tauki]], [[Umrani]], [[Yarahmadzai tribe|Yarahmadzai]], [[Zardari tribe|Zardari]], [[Makrani caste|Makrani]], along with [[Baloch diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Baloch people in the United Arab Emirates|the United Arab Emirates]] (including [[Al Balushi]]) and [[Turkmenistan]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Balti people|Balti]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] → [[Balti language|Balti]]
| [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bft|title=Balti|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Balti users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Bamar people|Bamars]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Burmese language|Burmese]]
| [[Myanmar]]
| 32.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya|title=Burmese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 December 2018}} Total first-language Burmese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Taungyo]], [[Yaw people|Yaw]], [[Intha people|Intha]], [[Danu people|Danu]], [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Bambara people|Bambara]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Manding languages|Manding]] → [[Bambara language|Bambara]] 
| [[Mali]]
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bam|title=Bamanankan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 December 2018}} Total first-language Bamanankan users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Haratin]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bamileke people|Bamileke]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Grassfields languages|Grassfields]] → [[Bamileke languages|Bamileke]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Cameroon]] ([[West Region (Cameroon)|West]] and [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest]] Regions)
| 2.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bamileke|title=Bamileke|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mengaka language|Mengaka]], [[Ngiemboon language|Ngiemboon]], [[Ngombale language|Ngombale]], [[Ngomba language|Ngomba]], [[Ngwe language|Ngwe]], [[Yemba language|Yemba]], [[Fe'fe' language|Fe'fe']], [[Ghomala' language|Ghomala']], [[Kwa’ language|Kwa’]], [[Nda’nda’ language|Nda’nda’]], [[Medumba language|Medumba]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bamum people|Bamum]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Grassfields languages|Grassfields]] → [[Bamum language|Bamum]]
| [[West Region (Cameroon)|West Region]] ([[Cameroon]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bax|title=Bamun|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]

|-
| [[Banda people|Banda]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Banda languages|Banda]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Central African Republic]], [[South Sudan]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Kevin Shillington|title=Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|pages=231–232}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Central Banda language|Central Banda]], [[South Banda language|South Banda]], [[West Banda language|West Banda]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Banjar people|Banjarese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Banjar language|Banjarese]]
| [[South Kalimantan]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Bari people|Bari]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Bari language|Bari]]
| [[Central Equatoria]] ([[South Sudan]]), [[Uganda]]
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bfa|title=Bari|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/keo|title=Kakwa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mqu|title=Mandari|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total number of first-language Bari users in all countries, the total number of Kakwa users in all countries, and the Mandari population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pojulu people|Pojulu]], [[Kakwa people|Kakwa]], [[Nyangwara people|Nyangwara]], [[Mandari people|Mandari]], [[Kuku people|Kuku]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bariba people|Bariba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Bariba language|Bariba]]
| [[Borgu]] ([[Benin]], [[Nigeria]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref name="Benin"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bn|Benin}} Beninese population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bassa people (Liberia)|Bassa]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kru languages|Kru]] → [[Bassa language|Bassa]]
| [[Grand Bassa County|Bassaland]] ([[Liberia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="CIA World Factbook, Liberia"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|li|Liberia}} Liberian population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Anglicanism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Bashkirs]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]]
| [[Bashkortostan]] ([[Russia]]) 
| 1.6 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
|  
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Basques]]
| [[Basque language|Basque]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to the widespread presence of both Spanish and French, the majority of Basques only have a passive knowledge of their language.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]] ([[Spain]], [[France]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Basque|title=Basque|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 850,000 in Spain, 130,000 in France, and 170,000 possibly living in South America and the United States.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Basque diaspora|Significant populations]] in [[Basque Argentines|Argentina]], [[Basque Chileans|Chile]], [[Basque Colombians|Colombia]], [[Basque Mexicans|Mexico]], [[Basque Venezuelan|Venezuela]], and [[Basque Uruguayans|Uruguay]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Batak]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] → [[Batak languages|Batak]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[North Sumatra]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 8.5 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Angkola people|Angkola]], [[Karo people (Indonesia)|Karo]], [[Mandailing people|Mandailing]], [[Pakpak people|Pakpak]], [[Simalungun people|Simalungun]], [[Toba Batak people|Toba]], [[Alas people|Alas]], [[Kluet people|Kluet]], [[Singkil people|Singkil]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Batak Christian Protestant Church|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Beja people|Beja]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Beja language|Beja]]
| [[Sudan]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]]
| 1.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beja-people|title=Bejah|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bishari tribe|Bishari]], [[Ababda people|Ababda]], [[Hadendoa]], [[Hedareb people|Hedareb]], [[Amarar tribe|Amarar]], [[Beni-Amer people|Beni-Amer]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Belarusians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Unlike the rest of the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], who were able to maintain their native language despite the ''de facto'' [[Russification|Russianization]] during the Soviet era, the Russian language has largely replaced Belarusian in everyday use.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Belarus]]
| 10 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Belarusian diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Belarusian Americans|United States]], [[Belarusians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], and [[Belarusians in Russia|Russia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Bemba people|Bemba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Bemba language|Bemba]]
| [[Zambia]] ([[Northern Province, Zambia|Northern]], [[Luapula Province|Luapula]], and [[Copperbelt Province|Copperbelt]] Provinces), [[Katanga Province]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 5.3 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Bembe people|Bembe]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Bembe language (Ibembe)|Bembe]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Tanzania]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bmb|title=Bembe|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=6 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bengalis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| [[Bengal]] ([[Bangladesh]], [[India]])
| 230 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ben|title=Bengali|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=30 September 2019}} Total first-language Bengali users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bangal]], [[Bhadralok]], [[Ghoti people|Ghoti]], [[Aguri (caste)|Aguri]], [[Bagdi caste|Bagdi]], [[Baidya]], [[Baishya Kapali]], [[Baishya Saha]], [[Barujibi]], [[Bauris]], [[Bengali Brahmins]], [[Chunaru]], [[Doms]], [[Gandhabanik]], [[Suvarna Banik]], [[Hari caste|Haris]], [[Jalia Kaibarta]][[Kansabanik]], [[Karmakar]], [[Mahishya]], [[Mal (caste)|Mal]], [[Bengali Kayastha]], [[Namasudra]], [[Sadgop]], [[Shunri]], [[Yogi Nath]], [[Bangladeshis]], along with [[Bangladeshi diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Bangladeshis in the Middle East|Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates]], [[Bangladeshis in Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[British Bangladeshi|the United Kingdom]], and [[Bangladeshi Americans|the United States]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Berbers]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Berber languages|Berber]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Maghreb]] ([[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]], [[Libya]])
| 20&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/05/05/north-africa-berbers-get-boost-from-arab-spring/|title=North Africa's Berbers get boost from Arab Spring|publisher=[[Fox News Channel|Fox News]]|date=5 May 2012|accessdate=8 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;–50 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Tej K. Bhatia|author2=William C. Ritchie|title=The Handbook of Bilingualism|date=2006|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0631227359|page=860|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=pNqVaUk4dM0C|accessdate=19 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Central Atlas Tamazight|Brabers]], [[Chaoui people|Chaouis]], [[Kabyle people|Kabyle]], [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawi]], [[Chenouas]], [[Ghomaras]], [[Houara]], [[Jerba people|Jerbis]], [[Matmata Berber|Matmatas]], [[Mozabite people|Mozabite]], [[Nafusi language|Nafusis]], [[Rifian people|Rifian]], [[Sanhaja de Srair language|Sanhaja de Srair]], [[Shilha people|Shilha]], [[Siwi people|Siwi]], [[Tuareg people|Tuaregs]], [[Awjila language|Awjila]], [[Arab-Berber]]s (including [[Demographics of Algeria|Algerians]], [[Demographics of Libya|Libyans]], [[Moroccans]], and [[Tunisian people|Tunisians]]), along with significant populations in [[Berbers in France|France]], [[Berbers in Belgium|Belgium]], and the [[Berbers in the Netherlands|Netherlands]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Berom people|Berom]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] → [[Berom language|Berom]]
| [[Plateau State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bom|title=Berom|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Berta people|Berta]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Berta language|Berta]]
| [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[South Sudan]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wti|title=Berta|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total first-language Berta users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] 
|-
| [[Betawi people|Betawis]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Betawi language|Betawian]]
| [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 6.8 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Beti people|Beti]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Beti language|Beti]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Beti and the Fang form the [[Beti-Pahuin peoples]]. While the term Beti is sometimes used interchangeably to refer to the Beti-Pahuin people, the Beti ethnicity is specifically limited to Ewondo and Eton speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cameroon]]
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"&gt;{{cite book|editor1=[[Kwame Anthony Appiah]]|editor2=[[Henry Louis Gates Jr.]]|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533770-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ewondo language|Ewondo]], [[Eton language|Eton]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bhil people|Bhils]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bhil languages|Bhil]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[India]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Maharastra]])
| 17.1 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://tribal.nic.in/ST/StatisticalProfileofSTs2013.pdf|title=Statistical Profile of Scheduled Tribes in India|publisher=[[Ministry of Tribal Affairs]]|year=2013|location=[[New Delhi]]}} Indian population only. Figures taken either directly from Table 1.23 or by combining related total populations of Table 1.24.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Barda (tribe)|Barda]], [[Bhagalia]], [[Bhilala]], [[Bhil Gametia]], [[Bhil Garasia]], [[Bhil Kataria]], [[Bhil Mama]], [[Bhil Mavchi]], [[Dholi Bhil]], [[Dungri Bhil]], [[Damor]], [[Dungri Garasia]], [[Mewasi Bhil]], [[Nirdhi Bhil]], [[Rawal Bhil]], [[Tadvi Bhil]], [[Vasava]], [[Bhil Meena]], [[Chaudhri]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Bhojpuri people|Bhojpuris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]
| [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur]] ([[India]], [[Nepal]])
| 50.6 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Paswan]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Bhumij]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Munda languages|Munda]] → [[Mundari language|Bhumij]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to their [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|historical low status in India]], the majority only speak Bengali.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[India]] ([[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]])
| 0.9 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Sarnaism]]
|-
| [[Bicolano people|Bicolanos]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Bikol languages|Bikol]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Bicol Region|Bicolandia]] ([[Philippines]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bicol-people|title=Bicol|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Central Bikol]], [[Sorsogon|Sorsoganons]], [[Catanduanes|Catandunganons]], [[Rinconada Bikol language|Rinconada]], [[Albay Bikol language|Albayanon]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Bidayuh]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sarawak]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="The Borneo Post"&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/02/08/state-statistics-malays-edge-past-chinese-in-sarawak/|title=State statistics: Malays edge past Chinese in Sarawak|accessdate=15 April 2016|newspaper=[[The Borneo Post]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415063610/http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/02/08/state-statistics-malays-edge-past-chinese-in-sarawak/|archivedate=15 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kendayan people|Kendayan]], [[Selako people|Selako]], [[Bakati’ language|Bakati’]], [[Sara Bakati' language|Sara Bakati']], [[Laraʼ language|Laraʼ]], [[Bukar Sadong language|Bukar Sadong]], [[Biatah language|Biatah]], [[Tringgus language|Tringgus]], [[Jagoi language|Jagoi]], [[Jangkang language|Jangkang]], [[Kembayan language|Kembayan]], [[Semandang language|Semandang]], [[Ribun language|Ribun]], [[Nyadu’ language|Nyadu’]], [[Sanggau language|Sanggau]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bilala people|Bilala]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] → [[Naba language|Naba]]
| [[Lake Fitri]] ([[Chad]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mne|title=Naba|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 March 2019}} 137,000 Bilala.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bishnupriya Manipuri people|Bishnupriya Manipuris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bishnupriya Manipuri language|Bishnupriya Manipuri]]
| [[Manipur]] ([[India]]), [[Bangladesh]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bpy|title=Bishnupriya|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 February 2019}} Total Bishnupriya users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Bissa people|Bissa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Bissa language|Bissa]]
| [[Burkina Faso]]
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bib|title=Bisa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Total Bissa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Blaan people|Blaan]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Blaan language|Blaan]]
| [[Soccsksargen]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bpr|title=Blaan, Koronadal|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=2 March 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bps|title=Blaan, Sarangani|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=2 March 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Anito|Anitism]]
|-
| [[Boa people|Boa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Bwa language|Boa]]
| [[Bas-Uele]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bww|title=Bwa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bodo people|Bodo]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
| [[Bodoland]] ([[India]])
| 1.5 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Mech tribe|Mech]]
| [[Bathouism]] 
|-
| [[Bosniaks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] 
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Sandžak]] ([[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]])
| 2.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bos|title=Bosnian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} Total Bosnian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in [[Bosniaks of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Bosniaks in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Bosnian Austrians|Austria]], [[Bosniaks in Germany|Germany]] and the [[Bosnian Americans|United States]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Bouyei language|Bouyei]] 
| [[Guizhou]] ([[China]])
| 3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-bouyei.htm|title=The Bouyei ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=17 February 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Giáy people|Giáy]]
| [[Mo (religion)|Moism]]
|-
| [[Bozo people|Bozo]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Bozo language|Bozo]] 
| [[Mali]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bze|title=Bozo, Jenaama|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 February 2019}} Includes only speakers of Jenaama dialect.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Brahui people|Brahuis]] 
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Brahui language|Brahui]]
| [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahui|title=Brahui|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Raisani]], [[Jhalawan]], [[Sarawan]], [[Mengal]] (including [[Zagar Mengal|Zagar]] and [[Zakria Zae Mengal|Zakria Zae]]), [[Sasoli]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Hanafi|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Bretons]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Breton language|Breton]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"&gt;Due to France's [[Language policy in France|long history]] of promoting the French language at the expense of others, the vast majority only speak French.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Brittany]] ([[France]])
| 4.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2119431?sommaire=2119504|title=Populations légales 2013 - Insee|publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques]]|accessdate=31 December 2016}} {{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2119468?sommaire=2119504|title=Populations légales 2013 - Insee|publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques]]|accessdate=31 December 2016}} Figure taken by combining the legal population of the [[Brittany (administrative region)|administrative region of Brittany]] with the legal population of the [[Loire-Atlantique]] Department in 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Bru people|Bru]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Katuic languages|Katuic]] → [[Bru language|Bru]]
| [[Savannakhet Province]] ([[Laos]]), [[Vietnam]] ([[Quảng Bình Province|Quảng Bình]] and [[Quảng Trị Province|Quảng Trị]] Provinces)
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bru|title=Bru, Eastern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=8 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/brv|title=Bru, Western|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total users of Eastern Bru and Western Bru in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Budu people|Budu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Budu language|Budu]]
| [[Wamba Territory]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Buduma people|Buduma]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Yedina language|Yedina]]
| [[Lake Chad]] ([[Chad]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]])
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Buginese people|Buginese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Buginese language|Buginese]]
| [[South Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 6.4 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bulgarians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] 
| [[Bulgaria]]
| 9–10 million&lt;ref name="Native Peoples of the World"&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vf4TBwAAQBAJ|title=Native Peoples of the World|work=google.bg|isbn=9781317464006|last1=Danver|first1=Steven L.|date=2015-03-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pomaks]], along with [[Bulgarian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Bulgarians in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Bessarabian Bulgarians|Ukraine and Moldova]], [[Banat Bulgarians|Romania and Serbia]], [[Bulgarians in Germany|Germany]], [[Bulgarians in Spain|Spain]] and the [[Bulgarian Americans|United States]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Burusho people|Burusho]]
| [[Burushaski]]
| [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bsk|title=Burushaski|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Isma'ilism|Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Butonese people|Butonese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Celebic languages|Celebic]] → [[Muna–Buton languages|Butonese]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Buton]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} 
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bwa people|Bwa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Bwa languages|Bwa]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mali]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Bwa People|work=Art and Life in Africa Online|publisher=[[University of Iowa]]|date=1998-11-03|url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Bwa.html|accessdate=2008-07-22|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722075626/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/bwa.html|archivedate=2008-07-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Catalans]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Catalan language|Catalan]] 
| [[Catalan Countries]] ([[Spain]], [[France]])
| 8.4 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Valencian people|Valencians]], [[Balearic people|Balearics]], [[Demographics of Andorra|Andorrans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
| [[Mariana Islands]] ([[United States]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Pacific Islander Americans"&gt;{{cite web|title=The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population: 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-12.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=US Census Bureau|accessdate=11 August 2017}} American population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Chams]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Cham language|Cham]]
| [[Champa]] ([[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]])
| 0.6–0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cja|title=Cham, Western|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=22 October 2017}} Both figures taken by combining the ethnic population of Cambodia with the Vietnamese population, the former using the 2009 census and the latter using the Bradley estimate. (Both sources include speakers of Eastern Cham).&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Chechens]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Nakh languages|Nakh]] → [[Chechen language|Chechen]]
| [[Chechnya]] ([[Russia]])
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27599836|title=Chechnya 'has no troops in Ukraine'|date=28 May 2014|website=BBC News|via=www.bbc.com|accessdate=17 October 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kists]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Cherokee]]
| [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]] → [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]]&lt;ref name="American Indians" group="note"&gt;Due to the a [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|long history]] of [[forced assimilation]] by the American government, the vast majority only speak [[American English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[United States]] ([[North Carolina]], [[Tennessee]])&lt;ref name="Trial of Tears" group="note"&gt;Following the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]], the Cherokee, the Choctaw, and the Muscogee were all [[Trail of Tears|forced to relocate]] their entire population to [[Oklahoma]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.8 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
| [[Cherokee Nation]], [[Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians|Eastern Band]], [[United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians|United Keetoowah Band]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Chin people|Chin]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]&lt;ref name="Chin–Naga" group="note"&gt;The Kuki-Chin–Naga language grouping (it is unclear whether the Kuki-Chin–Naga form an actual language family) consists of five to eight branches. Except for Karbi and Meitei, the Kuki-Chin–Naga is divided between the Chin and the Naga. The [[Mruic languages|Mruic]] and most of the [[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin]] speakers are seen as Chin, while speakers of the remaining Kuki-Chin–Naga branches ([[Ao languages|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhulic]], and [[Zeme languages|Zeme]]) and the speakers [[Northwestern Kuki-Chin languages|Northwestern Kuki-Chin]] are seen as Naga.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chin State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 10 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zogam.org/zomi-population "The Zomi Population"]&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Thadou people|Thadou]], [[Paite people|Paite]], [[Simte people|Simte]], [[Zou people|Zou]], [[Lamkang language|Lamkang]], [[Kom people (Manipur)|Kom]], [[Lushai]], [[Hmar people|Hmar]], [[Koireng]], [[Mizo people|Mizo]], [[Aimol people|Aimol]], [[Mru people (Awa Khami)|Mru]], [[Mru people (Mrucha)|Mrucha]] (including [[Anu-Hkongso language|Anu-Hkongso]]), [[Bawm people|Bawm]], [[Biate people|Biate]], [[Asho Chin people|Asho]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Choctaw]]
| [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] → [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]&lt;ref name="American Indians" group="note"/&gt;
| [[United States]] ([[Alabama]], [[Florida]], [[Mississippi]], [[Louisiana]])&lt;ref name="Trial of Tears" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
|
| [[Native American religion]]
|-
| [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]]
| [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Zambia]]
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chokwe|title=Chowke|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Chutiya people|Chutiya]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Deori language|Deori]]&lt;ref name="Assam" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Assam]] ([[India]])
| 2.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140405/jsp/northeast/story_18155427.jsp#.VdmeOXDhXJs|title=Chutias to shun Cong|website=www.telegraphindia.com|language=en|access-date=2018-11-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Deori people|Deori]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Chuukese people|Chuukese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian]] → [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]]
| [[Chuuk Lagoon]] ([[Federated States of Micronesia]]) 
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/chk|title=Chuukese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Chuukese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghur languages|Oghur]] → [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]]
| [[Chuvashia]] ([[Russia]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Virjal]], [[Anatri]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Circassians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Circassian languages|Circassian]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Circassia]] ([[Russia]])&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Circassian|title=Circassian|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 165,000 Adyghians, 345,000 Kabardians, 150,000 in Turkey, and 35,000 in Syria.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Adyghe people|Adygeans]], [[Kabardians]], [[Cherkess]], [[Shapsugs]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Chakma people|Chakmas]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Chakma language|Chakma]]
| [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] ([[Bangladesh]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Chakma|title=Chakma|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Chewa people|Chewa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Chewa language|Chewa]]
| [[Malawi]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]]
| 9.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nya|title=Chichewa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=30 December 2018}} Total Chichewa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Copts]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Coptic language|Coptic]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The original [[Egyptian language]], which morphed into the Coptic language around the 1st century AD, died out as a spoken language around the 17th century and is now only [[Liturgical language|used for religious ceremonies]]. Today, the Egyptians, including the Copts, speak [[Egyptian Arabic|Arabic]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Egypt]]
| 15-20 million&lt;ref name="Montreal Gazette"&gt;{{cite news|title=Coptic Orthodox Christmas to be low-key – Tight security: On alert after bombing in Egypt|url=https://montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal+Coptic+Orthodox+Christmas/4054183/story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223234517/http://www.montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal%2BCoptic%2BOrthodox%2BChristmas/4054183/story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 February 2011|accessdate=5 January 2011|newspaper=Montreal Gazette|date=4 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sudan]] and [[Libya]] along with [[Coptic diaspora|significant populations]] in [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Cornish people|Cornish]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Cornish language|Cornish]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note"&gt;Due to a long history of English dominance within Great Britain, the Celtic languages within the islands have seen steady decline in use, with some of them eventually going extinct. Although all of them have since seen major [[Language revitalization|language revival movements]], English continues to be main language for the majority of this group.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cornwall]] ([[United Kingdom]])
| 11 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/cornishcom/transnationalism.htm|title=The Cornish Transnational Communities Project|work=University of Exeter|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120173146/http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/cornishcom/transnationalism.htm|archivedate=20 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cornish diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Cornish Americans|United States]] and [[Cornish Australians|Australia]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Corsicans]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Corsican language|Corsican]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Corsica]] ([[France]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cos|title=Corsican|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 January 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Cree]]
| [[Algic languages|Algic]] → [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] → [[Cree language|Cree]]&lt;ref name="First Nation" group="note"&gt;Due to the a [[Canadian Indian residential school system|long history]] of [[forced assimilation]] by the Canadian government, the vast majority can only either speak [[Canadian English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Canada]] ([[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="First Nation Census"&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&amp;Geo1=PR&amp;Code1=01&amp;Data=Count&amp;SearchText=Canada&amp;SearchType=Begins&amp;B1=All&amp;C1=All&amp;SEX_ID=1&amp;AGE_ID=1&amp;RESGEO_ID=1|title=Aboriginal Population Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-11-23}} Canadian population only. Figure taken using total population of Aboriginal ancestry responses.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Innu]], [[Naskapi]], [[Atikamekw]], [[Grand Council of the Crees|James Bay Cree]], [[Moose Cree]], [[Swampy Cree]], [[Woods Cree]], [[Plains Cree]], [[Métis]] (including [[Métis in Canada]]), [[Oji-Cree]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Croats]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Croatian language|Croatian]] 
| [[Croatia]], [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
| 5.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hrv|title=Croatian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=28 March 2019}} Total first-language Croatian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bunjevci]], [[Krashovani]], [[Janjevci]], [[Sokci]], [[Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Croats]], along with [[Croatian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Croats of Italy|Italy]] (including [[Molise Croats]]), [[Burgenland Croats|Austria]], [[Croatian Americans|United States]], [[Croatian Chileans|Chile]], [[Croatian Argentines|Argentina]], [[Croats in Germany|Germany]], [[Croatian Australians|Australia]] and [[Croatian Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Cuyunon people|Cuyunon]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Visayan languages|Visayan]] → [[Cuyonon language|Cuyonon]]
| [[Cuyo Archipelago]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cyo|title=Cuyonon|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=2 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Czechs]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Czech language|Czech]]
| [[Czech Republic]] 
| 6.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://notes2.czso.cz/cz/sldb2011/cd_sldb2011_11_12/index_html_files/PVCR062.pdf|title=Tab. 6.2 Obyvatelstvo podle národnosti podle krajů: výsledky podle trvalého bydliště|trans-title=Tab. 6.2 Population by nationality by regions: results for permanent residence|language=cs|work=Czech Statistical Office (CZSO)|date=2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116234801/http://notes2.czso.cz/cz/sldb2011/cd_sldb2011_11_12/index_html_files/PVCR062.pdf|archivedate=16 January 2013}} Includes only those residing in the Czech Republic.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bohemian]]s, [[Moravians]], [[Czech Silesia|Silesians]], along with [[Czech diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Czech Americans|United States]] and [[Czech Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"&gt;Largest practiced religion; the majority/plurality of this group are actually [[Irreligion|non-religious]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[Dagaaba people|Dagaaba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Dagaare language|Dagaare]]
| [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] 
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dgi|title=Dagara, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dga|title=Dagaare, Southern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Dagomba people|Dagombas]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Dagbani language|Dagbani]]
| [[Kingdom of Dagbon]] ([[Ghana]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dag|title=Dagbani|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Damara people|Damara]]
| [[Khoe languages|Khoe]] → [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoe]]
| [[Damaraland]] ([[Namibia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Namibia"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|wa|Namibia}} Namibian population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Danes]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Danish language|Danish]] 
| [[Denmark]]
| 5.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dan|title=Danish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=28 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in the [[Danish Americans|United States]], [[Danish Canadians|Canada]], [[Danish people in Greenland|Greenland]], and [[Danish minority of Southern Schleswig|Germany]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Dargins]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]]
| [[Dagestan]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Kajtak language|Kajtak]], [[Kubachi language|Kubachi]], [[Itsari language|Itsari]], [[Chirag language|Chirag]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Dinka people|Dinka]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Dinka language|Dinka]] 
| [[South Sudan]]
| 4.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dinka|title=Dinka|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Dogon people|Dogon]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Dogon languages|Dogon]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Bandiagara Escarpment]] ([[Mali]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref name="John A. Shoup III"&gt;{{cite book|author=John A. Shoup III|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-363-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ampari Dogon]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Dogra]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Dogri language|Dogri]]
| [[Jammu Division]] ([[India]])
| 2.5 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Dongxiangs]] 
| [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] → [[Santa language|Santa]]
| [[Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture|Hezhou]] ([[China]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sce|title=Dongxiang|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Islam in China|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Dubla]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bhil languages|Bhil]] → [[Dubli language|Dubli]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to their [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|historical low status in India]], the majority only speak Gujarati.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gujarat]] ([[India]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Dutch people|Dutch]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| [[Netherlands]]
| 29 million&lt;ref&gt;''Autochtone population at 1 January 2006, Central Statistics Bureau, ''Integratiekaart 2006'''', [http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/4336C8A9-8E06-46BE-B1C0-CB0B21AD1AD4/0/2006integratiekaartpub.pdf (external link)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616151614/http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/4336C8A9-8E06-46BE-B1C0-CB0B21AD1AD4/0/2006integratiekaartpub.pdf|date=16 June 2007}} {{in lang|nl}}'''&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Groningen (province)|Gronings]], [[Demographics of Aruba|Arubans]], [[Bonaire|Bonairians]], [[Curaçao]]ans, [[Saba]]ns, [[Sint Maarten|St. Maarteners]], [[Sint Eustatius|St. Eustatians]], [[Surinamese people|Surinamese]], [[Mennonites]] (including [[Russian Mennonite]]s), [[Indo people|Indo]]s, [[Dutch Burghers]], along with [[Dutch diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Dutch Americans|United States]], [[Dutch Canadians|Canada]], [[Dutch Australians|Australia]], and [[Dutch New Zealanders|New Zealand]]
| [[Christianity]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Dyula people|Dyula]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Manding languages|Manding]] → [[Dyula language|Dyula]]
| [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Mali]]
| 2.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dyu|title=Jula|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 November 2018}} Total first-language Dyula users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Ebira people|Ebira]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Nupoid languages|Nupoid]] → [[Ebira language|Ebira]]
| [[Kogi State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/igb|title=Ebira|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=4 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Edo people|Edo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Edo language|Edo]]
| [[Edo State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bin|title=edo|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Total Edo users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ika people|Ika]], [[Emai people|Emai]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Efik people|Efik]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ibibio-Efik languages|Ibibio-Efik]] → [[Efik language|Efik]]
| [[Cross River State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.7 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ekoi people|Ekoi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Jagham language|Ekoi]]
| [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]]
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Emberá]]
| [[Choco languages|Choco]] → [[Embera language|Embera]]
| [[Chocó Department]] ([[Colombia]]), [[Panama]] ([[Darién Province|Darién]], [[Comarca Emberá-Wounaan|Emberá]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/emp|title=Emberá, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=31 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic population of Colombia (which includes speakers of Southern Emberá) with the Panamanian population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Shamanism]]
|-
| [[English people|English]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[English language|English]]
| [[England]] ([[United Kingdom]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Between [[Humphrey Gilbert|1583]] and [[Handover of Hong Kong|1997]], the English, via being the dominant ethnic group in the United Kingdom, created the largest [[British Empire|empire]] in the world, setting up settler colonies in areas such as what is now the United States, Canada, and Australia. Today, the majority of the [[Anglosphere]] is outside of the United Kingdom.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 58.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationprojections/bulletins/subnationalpopulationprojectionsforengland/2016based|title=Subnational population projections for England: 2016-based|website=[[Office for National Statistics]]|accessdate=20 February 2020}}England only - no estimate of English in diaspora.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[British Empire|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Americans]], [[Canadians]], [[Australians]], [[New Zealanders]], [[White Bahamian]]s, [[White Barbadian]]s, [[Demographics of the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islanders]], [[White Dominican (Dominica)|White Dominiquais]], [[White Jamaicans]], [[White people in Botswana|White Botswanans]], [[White people in Kenya|White Kenyans]], [[White Saint Helenians]], [[White people in Zambia|White Zambians]], [[White people in Zimbabwe|White Zimbabweans]], [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]], [[Anglo-Indian]]s, [[Britons in Hong Kong|British Hongkongers]], and [[Europeans in Pakistan|White Pakistanis]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Anglicanism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Esan people|Esan]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Esan language|Esan]]
| [[Esanland]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;Rolle, Nicholas. [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~fforum/handouts/rolle_fforum_tense.aspect.esan_2012.pdf], ''[[University of California in Berkeley]]'', Berkeley, October 17, 2012. Retrieved on 1 November 2014. Population of Esanland.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Estonians]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] → [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
| [[Estonia]] 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/est|title=Estonian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 November 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Estonian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Võros]], [[Setos]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Ewe people|Ewe]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] → [[Ewe language|Ewe]]
| [[Togo]], [[Ghana]]
| 6.7 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations"&gt;{{cite book|last1=Minahan|first1=James|title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations|volume=II (D–K)|date=2002a|publisher=Greenwood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2WcCIm6WaQC|ref=harv|isbn=9780313321108}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anlo Ewe]], [[Waci language|Waci]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Fang people|Fang]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Beti language|Beti]] → [[Fang language|Fang]]
| [[Río Muni]] ([[Equatorial Guinea]]), [[Gabon]]
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Fijians]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Fijian language|Fijian]]
| [[Fiji]] 
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/Tourism/tourmigstats_index.htm Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709220811/http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/Tourism/tourmigstats_index.htm|date=9 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Methodism|Protestantism]] 
|-
| [[Finns]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] → [[Finnish language|Finnish]]
| [[Finland]]
| 5.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fin|title=Finnish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 March 2019}} Total first-language Finnish users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kvens]], [[Forest Finns]], [[Tornedalians]], [[Ingrian Finns]], along with significant populations in [[Sweden Finns|Sweden]], [[Finnish Americans|United States]], and [[Finnish Canadians|Canada]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Flemish people|Flemings]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| [[Flanders]] ([[Belgium]])
| 6.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nld|title=Dutch|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} Belgian population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Fon people|Fon]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] → [[Fon language|Fon]]
| [[Dahomey]] ([[Benin]])
| 1.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fon-peole|title=Fon|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ogu people|Egun]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[French people|French]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[French language|French]]
| [[France]], [[Romandy]] ([[Switzerland]]), [[Aosta Valley]] ([[Italy]])
| 76.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fra|title=French|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 December 2018}} Total first-language French users in all countries, including Walloons and minorities residing in France.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Arpitania|Arpitans]], [[Burgundy|Burgundians]], [[Champenois language|Champenois]], [[Franche-Comté|Free Countians]], [[Gallo language|Gallo]], [[Lorraine]]rs, [[Normandy|Normans]] (including [[Channel Islands|Channel Islanders]]), [[Picardy|Picards]], [[Poitou|Poitevins]] (including [[Saintonge]]ais), [[Saint Barthélemy|Barthélemoise]], [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint-Martinois]], [[Demographics of French Guiana|French Guianese]], [[Caldoche]], [[Réunion]]ese (including [[Zoreilles]]), [[Demographics of Saint Pierre and Miquelon|Saint-Pierrais]], along with [[French diaspora|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Pied-Noir|Pieds-Noirs]], [[French Canadians]] (including [[Québécois people|Quebecers]], [[Acadians]], and [[Métis]]), [[Louisiana Creole people|Louisianians]] (including [[Creoles of color]] and [[Cajuns]]), [[French Haitians]], [[French people in Madagascar|French Malagasy]], [[Mauritian of French origin|Franco-Mauritians]], and [[Franco-Seychellois]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Frisians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Frisian languages|Frisian]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Frisia]] ([[Netherlands]], [[Germany]]) 
| 0.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fry|title=Frisian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frr|title=Frisian, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total West Frisian users in all countries with the Northern Frisian ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[West Frisians]], [[East Frisians]], [[North Frisians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Friulians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Friulian language|Friulian]]
| [[Friuli]] ([[Italy]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;http://www.arlef.it/en/friulian-language/sociolinguistic-condition/5#/sociolinguistic-condition {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107203239/http://www.arlef.it/en/friulian-language/sociolinguistic-condition/5#/sociolinguistic-condition |date=7 November 2018 }} - Study made by Arlef, Association of Region for the Friulian Language. Number of Friuilian speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Fula people|Fula]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Fula language|Fula]]
| [[West Africa]] ([[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Niger]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Benin]], [[Chad]])&lt;ref name="nomadic" group="note"&gt;This ethnic group is largely a nomadic or semi-nomadic one and do not have a particular area to claim as a primary homeland; these countries are listed here due to having a significant population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Felicity Crowe|title=Modern Muslim Societies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&amp;pg=PA262|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7927-7|page=262}}&lt;/ref&gt;–25 million&lt;ref name="Native Peoples of the World"/&gt;
| [[Wodaabe]], [[Haratin]], [[Fouta Djallon|Fula Jalon]], [[Futa Tooro|Fulakunda]], [[Maasina Fulfulde]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Fur people|Fur]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Fur language|Fur]]
| [[Darfur]] ([[Sudan]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=A Closer Look: Sudan, The Peoples of Darfur|url=http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/sudan/closer-look-sudanbrthe-peoples-darfur|work=Cultural Survival|publisher=Cultural Survival|date=May 7, 2010|accessdate=August 4, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Ga-Adangbe people|Ga-Adangbe]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Ga–Dangme languages|Ga–Dangme]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Greater Accra]] ([[Ghana]])
| 2.1 million&lt;ref name="Ghana"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gh|Ghana}} Ghanaian population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ga language|Ga]], [[Dangme language|Adangbe]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Gagauz language|Gagauz]]
| [[Gagauzia]] ([[Moldova]]), [[Budjak]] ([[Ukraine]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Galicians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Galician language|Galician]]
| [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] ([[Spain]]) 
| 3.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|  
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Baganda|Ganda]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Great Lakes Bantu languages|Great Lakes]] → [[Luganda]] 
| [[Buganda]] ([[Uganda]]) 
| 6.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ug|Uganda}} Ugandan population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Abayudaya]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Garifuna]]
| [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]] → [[Ta-Arawakan languages|Ta-Arawakan]] → [[Garifuna language|Garifuna]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Like its speakers, the Garfuna language is the only remnant of the [[Island Carib language]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Following the [[Second Carib War]], the majority of the Garifuna were deported to Honduras, where they later spread to Guatemala, Belize, and Nicaragua. Since then, Honduras have seen high murder rates, causing many to flee to United States.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Black Carib]]s
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Garo people|Garos]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Garo language|Garo]]
| [[Garo Hills]] ([[India]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Gayonese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] → [[Gayo language|Gayo]]
| [[Indonesia]] ([[Bener Meriah Regency|Bener Meriah]], [[Central Aceh Regency|Central Aceh]], and [[Gayo Lues Regency|Gayo Lues]] Regencies)
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Aris Ananta|author2=Evi Nurvidya Arifin|author3=M Sairi Hasbullah|author4=Nur Budi Handayani|author5=Agus Pramono |title=Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity|year=2015|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|page=120|isbn=978-981-4519-87-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gbagyi people|Gbagyi]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Nupoid languages|Nupoid]] → [[Gwari language|Gwari]]
| [[Nigeria]] 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gbr|title=Gbagyi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gby|title=Gbari|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Gbaya people|Gbaya]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]]
| 1.2 million&lt;ref name="The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary"&gt;{{cite book|last=Olson|first=James Stuart|title=The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdaAdBC-_S4C|year=1996|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-27918-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bokoto language|Bokoto]], [[Northwest Gbaya language|Kàrà]], [[Biyanda-Buli language|Buli]] (including [[Toongo language|Toongo]]), [[Ali language|Ali]], [[Mandja people|Mandja]], [[Gbeya language|Gbaya-Bossangoa]], [[Bozom language|Bozom]], [[Mbodomo language|Mbodomo]], [[Gbanu language|Gbanu]], [[Bangandu language|Bangandu]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gedeo people|Gedeo]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Gedeo language|Gedeo]]
| [[Gedeo Zone]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[P'ent'ay|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Gelao people|Gelao]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Kra languages|Kra]] → [[Gelao language|Gelao]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Many of the Gelao dialects are [[mutual intelligibility|mutually unintelligible]] from each other and are known to intermarry with other ethnic groups; recently, these factors have resulted in most of the populations speaking only [[Mandarin Chinese|Chinese]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Guizhou]] ([[China]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-gelo.htm|title=The Gelo ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=25 January 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Taoism]]
|-
| [[Georgians]]
| [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] → [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kat|title=Georgian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=30 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic populations of Georgia and Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Adjarians]], [[Mingrelians]], [[Svans]], [[Tushetians]] (including [[Bats people|Bats]]), [[Meskhetians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Germans]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[German language|German]]
| [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] 
| 100–150 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Jeffrey Cole|title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Ethnic+Groups+of+Europe:+An+Encyclopedia#v=onepage&amp;q=Ethnic%20Groups%20of%20Europe%3A%20An%20Encyclopedia&amp;f=false|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598843026|pages=171}} "Estimates of the total number of Germans in the world range from 100 million to 150 million, depending on how German is defined..."&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bavarians]], [[Franconia]]ns, [[Hessian dialects|Hessians]], [[Hunsrück|Hunsriks]], [[Saxony|Upper Saxons]], [[Lower Saxony|Lower Saxons]], [[Swabians]] (including [[Danube Swabians]]), [[Rhineland]]ers (including [[Cologne|Colognians]]), [[Alsace|Alsatians]], [[German-speaking Switzerland|German Swiss]], [[Liechtensteiners]], [[Pomeranians (German people)|Pomeranians]], [[Volga Germans]], [[Baltic Germans]], [[Silesian German]]s, [[Carpathian Germans]], [[North Schleswig Germans]], [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|Eastern Belgians]], [[Transylvanian Saxons]], [[Amish]] (including [[Pennsylvania Dutch]]), [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]] (including [[Russian Mennonite]]s), along with [[German diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[German Americans|United States]] (including [[German Texan]]s), [[German Brazilians|Brazil]], [[German Mexicans|Mexico]], [[German Argentine|Argentina]], [[German Canadians|Canada]], [[German Chileans|Chile]], [[Kazakhstan Germans|Kazakhstan]], [[German Australians|Australia]], and [[German New Zealanders|New Zealand]].
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Gola people|Gola]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gola language|Gola]]
| [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gol|title=Gola|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=4 January 2019}} Total Gola users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gondi people|Gonds]] 
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Gondi language|Gondi]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to their [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|historical low status in India]], the majority only speak Hindi.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gondwana (India)|Gondwana]] ([[India]])
| 13.3 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Godha]], [[Madia Gond]]s, [[Muria people|Muria]], [[Koya (tribe)|Koya]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Gorontaloan people|Gorontaloans]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Gorontalo language|Gorontaloan]] 
| [[Gorontalo]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1.8 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Greeks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Greek language|Greek]]
| [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]]
| 17 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Greece|year=2013|origyear=1992|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-65644-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M492AgAAQBAJ|ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Greek Cypriots]], [[Pontic Greeks]], [[Cappadocian Greeks]], [[Sarakatsani]], [[Urums]], [[Griko people|Griko]], [[Macedonians (Greeks)|Macedonian Greeks]], along with [[Greek diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Greeks in Albania|Albania]] (including [[Northern Epirus|Northern Epirotes]]), [[Greeks in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Greeks in Georgia|Georgia]], [[Greek Americans|the United States]], the [[Greeks in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Greeks in Germany|Germany]], [[Greek Australians|Australia]], and [[Greek Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Greek Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Guang people|Guan]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Guang languages|Guang]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ghana]] ([[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong-Ahafo]] and [[Volta Region|Volta]] Regions)
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Ghana"/&gt;
| [[Gonja people|Gonja]], [[Kyode people|Kyode]], [[Cherepon language|Cherepon]], [[Efutu people|Efutu]], [[Ginyanga language|Anyanga]], [[Larteh language|Larteh]], [[Chumburung language|Chumburung]], [[Krache language|Krache]], [[Gua language|Anum-Boso]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]]
| [[Tupian languages|Tupian]] → [[Guarani language|Guarani]]
| [[Paraguay]], [[Misiones Province|Misiones]] ([[Argentina]]), [[Bolivia]]
| 5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Guarani|title=Guaraní|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Eastern Bolivian Guaraní|Chiriguanos]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Demographics of Paraguay|Paraguayans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] 
| [[Gujarat]] ([[India]])
| 60 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Koli people|Koli]], [[Bharwad]], [[Khoja]], [[Patidar]], [[Sunni Bohra]], [[Lohana]], [[Vagri]], [[Kharwa caste|Kharva]], [[Charan]], [[Baria caste|Baria]], [[Momna]], [[Ghanchi (Muslim)|Ghanchi]], [[Shenva]], [[Bhambi Khalpa]], [[Zarabes]], [[Bhoi]], [[Luso-Indian]]s, [[Gujarati Americans]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Gumuz people|Gumuz]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Gumuz language|Gumuz]]
| [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religion]] 
|-
| [[Gurage people|Gurage]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Gurage languages|Gurage]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Gurage Zone|Guragia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1.9 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| [[Soddo language|Kistane]], [[Zay people|Zay]], [[Inor language|Inor]], [[Mesqan language|Mesqan]], [[Sebat Bet Gurage language|Sebat Bet]] (including [[Chaha language|Chaha]] and [[Muher language|Muher]])
| [[Christianity]] 
|-
| [[Gurma people|Gurma]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Gourmanché language|Gourmanché]]
| [[Gourma Province|Gurmaland]] ([[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gux|title=Gourmanchéma|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=5 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ntcham language|Ntcham]], [[Bimoba people|Bimoba]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gurunsi peoples|Gurunsi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Gurunsi languages|Gurunsi]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]], [[Togo]]
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|uv|Burkina Faso}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gh|Ghana}} Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations. The CIA does not have percentages for the Togolese population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lukpa language|Lukpa]], [[Kabye people|Kabye]], [[Tem people|Tem]], [[Lamba people|Lamba]], [[Delo language|Delo]], [[Bago-Kusuntu language|Bago-Kusuntu]], [[Chala language|Chala]], [[Lyélé language|Lyélé]], [[Nuna people|Nuna]], [[Kalamsé language|Kalamsé]], [[Pana language (Gur)|Pana]], [[Kassena]], [[Winye language|Winye]], [[Deg language|Deg]], [[Puguli language|Puguli]], [[Paasaal language|Paasaal]], [[Sisaala language|Sisaala]], [[Chakali language|Chakali]], [[Siti language|Siti]], [[Tamprusi language|Tamprusi]], [[Vagla language|Vagla]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Hadiya people|Hadiya]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]]
| [[Hadiya Zone|Hadiya]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Han Chinese]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| [[China]]
| 1,315 million&lt;ref name="Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia"&gt;{{cite book|author=James B. Minahan|title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1610690184|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610690188}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Subei people|Subei]], [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] (including [[Taishanese people|Taishanese]], [[Hong Kong people|Hongkongers]], [[Tanka people|Tankas]], [[Chuanqing people|Chuanqing]] and [[Macanese people|Macanese]]), [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Min Chinese speakers|Fujianese]] (including [[Fuzhou people|Fuzhounese]], [[Hainan people|Hainanese]], [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]], [[Hui'an maidens]], [[Putian people|Putianese]], and [[Teochew people|Teochew]]), [[Gaoshan Han]], [[Gan Chinese-speaking people|Gan]], [[Hakka people|Hakka]] (including [[Ngái people|Ngái]]), [[Hebei people|Hebei]], [[Hunanese people|Hunanese]], [[Jianghuai people|Jianghuai]], [[Shandong people|Shandong]], [[Sichuanese people|Sichuanese]], [[Wu Chinese-speaking people|Wu]] (including [[Shanghainese people|Shanghainese]], [[Ningbonese people|Ningbonese]], and [[Wenzhou people|Wenzhou]]), [[Han Taiwanese]], along with [[Overseas Chinese|significant populations]] in the [[Chinese Americans|United States]], [[Malaysian Chinese|Malaysia]] (including [[Peranakan]]), [[Chinese Singaporeans|Singapore]], [[Thai Chinese|Thailand]], [[Chinese Indonesians|Indonesia]], [[Chinese people in Myanmar|Myanmar]], [[Chinese Canadians|Canada]], the [[Chinese Filipino|Philippines]] (including [[Sangley]]s), [[Chinese Peruvians|Peru]], [[Chinese Australians|Australia]], [[Hoa people|Vietnam]], [[Chinese people in Japan|Japan]], [[Ethnic Chinese in Russia|Russia]], [[Chinese diaspora in France|France]] (including [[Chinois (Réunion)|Chinois]]), the [[British Chinese|United Kingdom]], [[Chinese South Africans|South Africa]], [[Chinese people in Italy|Italy]], [[Chinese people in Germany|Germany]], [[Chinese people in Korea|Korea]], [[Chinese people in Spain|Spain]], [[Chinese community in India|India]], [[Laotian Chinese|Laos]], [[Chinese Brazilians|Brazil]], the [[Chinese people in the Netherlands|Netherlands]], [[Ethnic Chinese in Panama|Panama]], and [[Chinese New Zealanders|New Zealand]]
| [[Chinese folk religion]]
|-
| [[Hani people|Hani]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]] → [[Hani language|Hani]]
| [[Yunnan]] ([[China]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hani.htm|title=The Hani ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Harari people|Harari]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Harari language|Harari]]
| [[Harari Region|Hararia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Lovise|first1=Alean|title=The Politics of Ethnicity in Ethiopia|date=22 June 2011|publisher=BRILL|page=154|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3dmM4Cs5KM0C&amp;pg=PA154&amp;dq=like+the+harar,+with+a+population+of+around+200,000#v=onepage&amp;q=like%20the%20harar%2C%20with%20a%20population%20of%20around%20200%2C000&amp;f=false|accessdate=23 February 2017|isbn=978-9004207295}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Hausa people|Hausa]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Hausa language|Hausa]] 
| [[North West (Nigeria)|Hausaland]] ([[Niger]], [[Nigeria]])
| 43.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hau|title=Hausa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Total first-language Hausa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Native Hawaiians|Hawaiians]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Since [[Newlands Resolution|Hawaii's annexation into the United States]], [[American English|English]] has almost completely supplanted Hawaiian.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Hawaii]] ([[United States]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Pacific Islander Americans"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Hazaras]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] → [[Hazaragi dialect|Hazaragi]]
| [[Hazarajat]] ([[Afghanistan]])
| 5–8 million&lt;ref name="Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia"/&gt;
| [[Aimaq Hazara]], [[Hazara Australians]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Twelver|Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Herero people|Herero]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Herero language|Herero]] 
| [[Hereroland]] ([[Namibia]]), [[Angola]]
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Himba people|OvaHimba]], [[Mbanderu people|Ovambanderu]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Hmong people|Hmong]]
| [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] → [[Hmongic languages|Hmongic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Guizhou]] ([[China]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Following the suppression of [[Miao Rebellion (1854–73)|Miao Rebellion of 1854–1873]], the majority of the Hmong fled further south to [[Guangxi]], [[Yunnan]], Vietnam, and Laos.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 14–15 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lemoine|first=Jacques|year=2005|title=What is the actual number of (H)mong in the world?|journal=Hmong Studies Journal|volume=6|url=http://www.hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[A-Hmao]], [[Gha-Mu people|Gha-Mu]], [[Xong language|Xong]], [[Pa-Hng language|Pa-Hng]], [[Hmong Americans]]
| [[Hmong folk religion]]
|-
| [[Huli people|Huli]]
| [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]] → [[Engan languages|Engan]]  → [[Huli language|Huli]] 
| [[Southern Highlands Province]] ([[Papua New Guinea]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;"Papua New Guinea National Population and Housing Census 2011: Final figures", Port Moresby PNG National Statistical Office 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Hungarians]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] → [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
| [[Hungary]], [[Székely Land]] ([[Romania]]), [[Upper Hungary|Felvidék]] ([[Slovakia]])
| 12.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hun|title=Hungarian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=17 December 2018}} Total 
Hungarian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Jasz people|Jasz]], [[Palóc]], along with [[Hungarian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Hungarians in Romania|Romania]] (including [[Székelys]] and [[Csangos]]), [[Hungarians in Slovakia|Slovakia]], [[Hungarians in Serbia|Serbia]], [[Hungarians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Hungarians of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Hungarians in Slovenia|Slovenia]], [[Hungarians in Germany|Germany]], the [[Hungarian Americans|United States]], and [[Hungarian Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Roman Catholicism in Hungary|Catholicism]] 
|-
| [[Hutu]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Great Lakes Bantu languages|Great Lakes]] → [[Rwanda-Rundi]]&lt;ref name="Hutu, Tutsi, Twa" group="note"&gt;Refers specifically to the [[Kinyarwanda]] and [[Kirundi]] dialects. The other speakers of the dialects within the Rwanda-Rundi continuum are considered to be separate from the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa peoples.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kivu]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 9.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hutu|title=Hutu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Iban people|Iban]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Iban language|Iban]]
| [[Sarawak]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/iba|title=Iban|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=18 February 2019}} Total first-language Iban users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Dayak Mualang|Mualang]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ibanag people|Ibanag]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]] → [[Ibanag language|Ibanag]]
| [[Philippines]] ([[Isabela (province)|Isabela]], [[Cagayan]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ibg|title=Ibanag|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=2 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ibibio-Efik languages|Ibibio-Efik]] → [[Ibibio language|Ibibio]]
| [[Akwa Ibom State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 4.5 million&lt;ref name="Nigeria"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ni|Nigeria}} Nigerian population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Eket]], [[Aro people|Aro]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Icelanders]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] 
| [[Iceland]] 
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Idoma people|Idoma]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Idomoid languages|Idomoid]] → [[Idoma language|Idoma]]
| [[Benue State]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/idu|title=Idoma|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=11 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Agatu language|Agatu]], [[Alago language|Alago]], [[Yala language|Yala]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Igbo people|Igbo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Igbo language|Igbo]] 
| [[Igboland]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Igbo|title=Igbo|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anioma people|Anioma]], [[Aro people|Aro]], [[Edda people|Edda]], [[Ekpeye people|Ekpeye]], [[Etche]], [[Ezaa people|Ezaa]], [[Ika people|Ika]], [[Ikwerre people|Ikwerre]], [[Ikwo people|Ikwo]], [[Isu people|Isu]], [[Izzi people|Izzi]], [[Mbaise]], [[Mgbo people|Mgbo]], [[Ngwa]], [[Nri-Igbo]], [[Ogba people|Ogba]], [[Ohafia]], [[Ohuhu people|Ohuhu]], [[Onitsha-Ado]], [[Ukwuani people|Ukwuani]], [[Waawa]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda|Antiguans and Barbudans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Igede]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Idomoid languages|Idomoid]] → [[Igede language|Igede]]
| [[Benue State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Igorot people|Igorot]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Cordillera Administrative Region]] ([[Philippines]])
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Igorot|title=Igorot|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=2 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Balangao people|Balangao]], [[Bontoc language|Bontoc]], [[Ibaloi people|Ibaloi]], [[Ifugao language|Ifugao]] (including [[Kalanguya people|Kalanguya]]), [[Isnag people|Isnag]], [[Kalinga language|Kalinga]], [[Kankanaey people|Kankanaey]]
| [[Anito|Anitism]]
|-
| [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ijaw languages|Ijaw]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Nigeria]] ([[Rivers State|Rivers]], [[Bayelsa State|Bayelsa]], and [[Delta State|Delta]] States)
| 14 million&lt;ref name="John A. Shoup III"/&gt;
| [[Bille tribe|Bille]], [[Engenni people|Engenni]], [[Ibani tribe|Ibani]], [[Kalabari tribe|Kalabari]], [[Kula tribe (Rivers State)|Kula]], [[Nkoro tribe|Nkoro]], [[Nkoroo people|Nkoroo]], [[Obolo people|Obolo]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]] → [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]
| [[Ilocos Region]] ([[Philippines]])
| 10 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ilocano|title=Ilocano|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Ingush people|Ingush]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Nakh languages|Nakh]] → [[Ingush language|Ingush]]
| [[Ingushetia]] ([[Russia]]) 
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Inuit]]
| [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] → [[Inuit languages|Inuit]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Greenland]] ([[Denmark]]), [[Canada]] ([[Nunavut]], [[Nunatsiavut]], [[Nunavik]], [[NunatuKavut]]), [[Alaska]] ([[United States]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gl|Greenland}} {{Cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/171025/mc-a001-eng.htm|title=Inuit population by residence inside or outside Inuit Nunangat, 2016|website=[[Statistics Canada]]|access-date=2017-11-12}} Figure taken by combining both sources. Inuit residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Greenlandic Inuit|Greenlandics]] (including [[Kalaallit]], [[Tunumiit]], [[Inughuit]] and [[Greenlandic people in Denmark|Greenlandic Danes]]), [[Iñupiat]], [[Inuktitut]], [[Inuvialuit]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Iranun people|Iranun]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Iranun language|Iranun]]
| [[Mindanao]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Irish people|Irish]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Irish language|Irish]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ireland]] ([[Republic of Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;During the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]], many Irish people fled to places like Argentina, Mexico, and the United States. Today, the majority of people claiming Irish ethnicity resides outside of Ireland.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 80 million&lt;ref name="ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/05/28141101/6|title=The Scottish Diaspora and Diaspora Strategy: Insights and Lessons from Ireland|first=Scottish Government, St. Andrew's House, Regent Road, Edinburgh EH1 3DG Tel:0131 556 8400|last=ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk|date=29 May 2009|website=www.scotland.gov.uk|accessdate=22 October 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Irish Travellers]], [[Ulster Irish]], along with [[Irish diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Irish Americans|United States]], [[Irish Australians|Australia]], [[Irish Canadians|Canada]], [[Irish Argentine|Argentina]], [[Irish immigration to Mexico|Mexico]] and [[Irish New Zealanders|New Zealand]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Roman Catholicism in Ireland|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Iroquois]]
| [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;With the exception of Cherokee, all Iroquoian speakers are seen as one ethnicity. However, due to a long history of [[forced assimilation]] by both [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|American]] and [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Canadian]] governments, the vast majority can only speak English.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[United States]], [[Canada]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="American Indian/First Nation"&gt;{{cite web|title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf|website=census.gov|accessdate=7 March 2017}} {{Cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&amp;Geo1=PR&amp;Code1=01&amp;Data=Count&amp;SearchText=Canada&amp;SearchType=Begins&amp;B1=All&amp;C1=All&amp;SEX_ID=1&amp;AGE_ID=1&amp;RESGEO_ID=1|title=Aboriginal Population Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-11-23}} Figure taken by combining the American Indian
and Alaska Native tribal grouping alone from Table 7 or in any combination from the American Census with the total population of Aboriginal ancestry responses in the Canadian census. The American Census lists the Ojibwe as Chippewa. The Canadian Census spells the Ojibwe as Ojibwa and splits the Iroquois into four groups: Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, and Iroquois.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mohawk people|Mohawk]], [[Oneida people|Oneida]], [[Onondaga people|Onondaga]], [[Cayuga people|Cayuga]], [[Seneca people|Seneca]], [[Tuscarora people|Tuscarora]]
| [[Longhouse Religion]]
|-
| [[Isan people|Isan]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Lao language|Lao]] → [[Isan language|Isan]]
| [[Isan]] ([[Thailand]])
| 22 million&lt;ref name="Peoples of the Buddhist World"&gt;{{cite book|first=Paul (ed.)|last=Hattaway|title=Peoples of the Buddhist World|publisher=William Carey Library|year=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Isoko people|Isoko]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Isoko language|Isoko]] 
| [[Isoko region]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.6 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Italians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Italian language|Italian]]
| [[Italy]], [[Ticino]] ([[Switzerland]])
| 69&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf|title=Eurobarometer – Europeans and their languages}}, February 2006. Number of native Italian speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;–140 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.progettoculturale.it/cci_new/documenti_cei/2011-03/08-23/4%20-%20Rapp%20Italiani.pdf|title=Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo 2010|date=December 2010|website=Fondazione Migrantes|language=Italian|access-date=2018-11-22}} Includes citizens of Brazil and the United States who identify as being of partial Italian ancestry.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sicilians]], [[Waldensians]], [[Lazio|Lazians]], [[Marche|Marchigianos]], [[Tuscany|Tuscans]], [[Umbria]]ns, [[Emilian dialect|Emilian]], [[Romagnol dialect|Romagnol]] (including [[Demographics of San Marino|Sanmarinese]]), [[Trentino|Trentinis]], [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurians]] (including [[Demographics of Monaco|Monégasque]]), [[Lombardy|Lombards]], [[Piedmont]]ese, [[Apulia]]ns, [[Calabria]]ns, [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitans]] (including [[Abruzzo|Abruzzans]], [[Molise|Molisans]], [[Basilicata]]ns, and [[Campania]]ns), [[Veneto|Venetians]] along with [[Italian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Italian Argentines|Argentina]], [[Italian Brazilians|Brazil]], the [[Italian Americans|United States]], [[Italo-Venezuelans|Venezuela]], [[Italian Canadians|Canada]], [[Italians in France|France]], [[Italian Peruvians|Peru]], [[Italian Uruguayans|Uruguay]], [[Italian Australians|Australia]], [[Italians in Germany|Germany]], [[Italian Chileans|Chile]] and the [[Italians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Itawes]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]] → [[Itawis language|Itawis]]
| [[Cagayan Valley]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Japanese people|Japanese]]
| [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] → [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 
| [[Japan]]
| 128.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/jpn|title=Japanese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=17 December 2018}} Total first-language Japanese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kantō dialect|Kantō]], [[Kansai dialect|Kansai]], [[Hokkaido dialects|Hokkaido]], [[Tōhoku dialect|Tōhoku]], [[Hōnichi dialect|Hōnichi]], [[Kagoshima dialect|Satsugū]], [[Chūgoku dialect|Chūgoku]], [[Niigata Prefecture|Echigo]], [[Tōkai region|Tōkai]], [[Shin'etsu region|Shinshuu]], [[Hokuriku dialect|Hokuriku]], [[Hachijō language|Hachijō]], along with [[Japanese diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Japanese Brazilians|Brazil]], the [[Japanese Americans|United States]] and the [[Japanese in the Philippines|Philippines]].
| [[Shinto]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The majority of the Japanese practiced a [[Religious syncretism|syncretised]] form of Shinto and [[Buddhism in Japan|Buddhism]] called [[Shinbutsu-shūgō]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[Jarai people|Jarai]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Jarai language|Jarai]]
| [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] ([[Vietnam]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Javanese people|Javanese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Javanese language|Javanese]]
| [[Java]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 95.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Cirebonese]], [[Osing people|Osing]], [[Tenggerese people|Tenggerese]], [[Boyanese]], [[Samin people|Samin]], [[Banyumasan people|Banyumasan]], along with significant populations in [[Javanese Malaysians|Malaysia]], [[Javanese Surinamese|Suriname]], [[Indonesians in Hong Kong|China]], and [[Indonesians in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Jews]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Despite the [[Revival of the Hebrew language|successful revival]] of the Hebrew language, many Jews continue to speak the [[Jewish languages|various languages]] that have developed by the diaspora populations, including [[Yiddish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]], and [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]]. In addition, English serves as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of Israel.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Israel]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Until [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|1948]], the Jews were largely a diaspora ethnicity, with the [[Jewish identity]] being claimed mostly by descendants of those that left Israel following the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] while the remaining population evolved into the Palestinians. Despite some entire Jewish communities [[Aliyah|migrating]] back to Israel, the Israelis only make up a plurality of the worldwide Jewish population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 17.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|editor-last1=Dashefsky|editor-first1=Arnold|editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky|editor-last2=DellaPergola|editor-first2=Sergio|editor-link2=Sergio DellaPergola|editor-last3=Sheskin|editor-first3=Ira|date=2017|title=World Jewish Population, 2016|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/World_Jewish_Population_2017_AJYB_DataBank_Final.pdf|publisher=Berman Jewish DataBank|access-date=12 June 2017}} Population with Jewish parents (including converts to Judaism, descendants of converts to Judaism, non-observant Jews and those with only Jewish fathers).&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]], [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]] (including [[Moroccan Jews]], [[History of the Jews in Tunisia|Tunisian Jews]], and [[Berber Jews|Toshavim]]), [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]] (including [[Syrian Jews|Syrian]] and [[Bukharan Jews|Bukharan]] Jews), [[Yemenite Jews|Teimanim]], [[Beta Israel]], [[Italian Jews|Italkim]], [[Romaniote Jews|Romaniotes]], [[Mountain Jews|Juhurim]], [[Krymchaks]], [[Bene Israel]], [[Cochin Jews|Cochin]], [[Lishanid Noshan]], [[Israelis]], along with [[Jewish diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[American Jews|United States]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Canada|Canada]], the [[British Jews|United Kingdom]], [[History of the Jews in Argentina|Argentina]], [[History of the Jews in Russia|Russia]], [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]], and [[History of the Jews in Australia|Australia]]
| [[Judaism]]
|-
| [[Jingpo people|Jingpo]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Jingpho language|Jingpho]]
| [[Kachin State]] ([[Myanmar]]), [[Yunnan]] ([[China]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kac|title=Jingpho|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=28 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining the Burmese population with the ethnic population of China.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Jola people|Jola]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Jola languages|Jola]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Casamance|Jolaland]] ([[Senegal]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;Klein, Martin A. "Shrines of the Slave Trade: Diola Religion and Society in Precolonial Senegambia." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 31.2 (Autumn 2000): 315. Accessed through [[Gale (Cengage)]], 6 Aug. 2009&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bandial language|Banjaal]], [[Bayot language|Bayot]], [[Jola-Fonyi language|Fogni]], [[Gusilay language|Gusilay]], [[Karon language|Karon]], [[Kasa language|Kasa]], [[Kwatay language|Kuwaataay]], [[Mlomp language|Mlomp]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Jukun people (West Africa)|Jukun]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Jukun Takum language|Jukun Takum]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The [[Wapan language]] have largely replaced Jukun Takum as the main language.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wukari Federation|Wukari]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/juk|title=Wapan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=7 April 2019}} Wapan population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wannu language|Wannu]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Kadazan-Dusun]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Dusunic languages|Dusunic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sabah]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Saw Swee-Hock|title=The Population of Malaysia (Second Edition)|year=2015|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-98-146-2036-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kadazan people|Kadazan]], [[Dusun people|Dusun]], [[Dumpas]], [[Ida'an]], [[Kwijau]], [[Lotud]], [[Mangka'ak]], [[Maragang]], [[Minokok]], [[Orang Sungai]], [[Rumanau people|Rumanau]], [[Rungus people|Rungus]], [[Tambanuo people|Tambanuo]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kalanga people|Kalanga]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Shona language|Shona]] → [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]]
| [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]]
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Language|url=https://kalanga.org/language/|website=Kalanga|publisher=Kalanga Language and Cultural Development Association (KLCDA)|accessdate=18 September 2018}} Taken by combining the Zimbabwean and the Botswanan populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nambya people|Nambya]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Nandi–Markweta languages|Kalenjin]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Rift Valley Province]] ([[Kenya]])
| 5 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.knbs.or.ke/censusethnic.php|title=2009 Census|accessdate=2013-12-16|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121153548/http://www.knbs.or.ke/censusethnic.php|archivedate=2013-11-21}} Kenyan population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Keiyo people|Keiyo]], [[Tugen people|Tugen]], [[Marakwet people|Marakwet]], [[Nandi people|Nandi]], [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]], [[Sabaot people|Sabaot]], [[Pokot people|Pökoot]], [[Okiek people|Okiek]], [[Terik people|Terik]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kalinago people|Kalinago]]
|[[Macro-Arawakan languages]] → [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]] → [[Kalinago]]
|[[Lesser Antilles]]
|0.004 million
|[[Black Carib]]s
|[[Christianity]] → [[Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kamba people|Kamba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kamba language|Kamba]]
| [[Eastern Province (Kenya)|Ukambani]] ([[Kenya]])
| 3.9 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| [[Afro-Paraguayan]]s
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kanak people|Kanaks]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[New Caledonian languages|Kanak]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[New Caledonia|Kanakia]] ([[France]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Population Structure and Trends|url=http://www.isee.nc/population/recensement/structure-de-la-population-et-evolutions|website=Institute de la Statistique et des études économiques Nouvelle-Calédonie|publisher=Institute de la Statistique et des études économiques Nouvelle-Calédonie|accessdate=3 July 2017|language=French}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Haveke language|Haveke]], [[Ajië language|Ajië]], [[Arhâ language|Arhâ]], [[Xârâgurè language|Xârâgurè]], [[Haeke language|Haeke]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kannada people|Kannadigas]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Kannada]] 
| [[Karnataka]] ([[India]])
| 43.7 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Vokkaliga]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] → [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]
| [[Borno State|Kanuriland]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]])
| 8.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kau|title=Kanuri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=28 November 2018}} {{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kbl|title=Kanembu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=22 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the population total of all languages of the Kanuri [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]] with the Kanembu population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kanembu people|Kanembu]], [[Yerwa Kanuri people|Yerwa Kanuri]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangans]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]
| [[Pampanga]] ([[Philippines]])
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kapampangan|title=Kapampangan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kapsiki people|Kapsiki]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Psikyɛ dialect|Kapsiki]]
| [[Mandara Mountains]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]])
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Karachays]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Karachay-Balkar language|Karachay]]
| [[Karachay-Cherkessia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Karakalpaks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Karakalpak language|Karakalpak]]
| [[Karakalpakstan]] ([[Uzbekistan]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kaa|title=Karakalpak|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=28 November 2018}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Karbi people|Karbi]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] → [[Karbi language|Karbi]]
| [[Karbi Anglong district]] ([[India]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Amri language|Amri]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Karen people|Karen]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Karenic languages|Karenic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Kayin State|Karen State]] ([[Myanmar]]), [[Thailand]]
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://australiankarenfoundation.org.au/karen_people_18.html|title=Karen people|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524024545/http://australiankarenfoundation.org.au/karen_people_18.html|archivedate=24 May 2015}} Karen population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[S’gaw Karen language|S'gaw Karen]], [[Pwo Karen languages|Pwo Karen]], [[Karenni people|Karenni]] (including [[Kayan people (Myanmar)|Kayan]])
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Kashmiris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] → [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
| [[Kashmir]] ([[India]], [[Pakistan]])
| 6.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s, [[Kashmiris of Punjab]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Kashubians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
| [[Kashubia]] ([[Poland]])
| 0.5&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/iesp/grabowska.pdf|title=The Institute for European Studies, Ethnological institute of UW|date=|accessdate=2012-08-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;–0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=September 2011|title=Polen-Analysen. Die Kaschuben|url=http://www.laender-analysen.de/polen/pdf/PolenAnalysen95.pdf|journal=Länder-Analysen|language=German|volume=Polen NR. 95|pages= 10–13}} Polish population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kazakhs]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] 
| [[Kazakhstan]] 
| 18 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstans-population-tops-18-million/|title=Kazakhstan's population tops 18 million| date=2018-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in [[Kazakhs in China|China]], and [[Kazakhs in Russia|Russia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Khas people|Khas]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Nepali language|Nepali]] 
| [[Nepal]], [[Uttarakhand]] ([[India]])
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pahari|title=Pahāṛī|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chhetri]], [[Bahun]], [[Kami (caste)|Kami]], [[Damai]], [[Sarki (ethnic group)|Sarki]], [[Gandarbha]], [[Thakuri]], [[Badi people|Badi]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Khmer people|Khmer]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
| [[Cambodia]]
| 17 million&lt;ref name="Peoples of the Buddhist World"/&gt;
| Significant populations in the [[Cambodian Americans|United States]] and [[Khmer Krom|Vietnam]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Buddhism in Cambodia|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Khonds]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Kui language (India)|Kui]]
| [[Kandhamal district|Kandhamal]] ([[India]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Khorasani Turks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Khorasani Turkic language|Khorasani Turkic]] 
| [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]] ([[Iran]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/turkic-languages-overview|title=TURKIC LANGUAGES OF PERSIA: AN OVERVIEW|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|language=en|access-date=2018-08-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kikuyu language|Kikuyu]]
| [[Kenya]]
| 6.6 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kilba people|Kilba]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Huba language|Huba]]
| [[Hong, Nigeria|Hong]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hbb|title=Nya Huba|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kirati people|Kirati]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Eastern Development Region, Nepal|Eastern Development Region]] ([[Nepal]])
| 0.9 million{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|sl|Nepalese}} Nepalese population only. Figure taken using the religious percentage of Kirat Mundhum followers (listed as "Kiranti") with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Limbu people|Limbu]], [[Sunuwar people|Sunuwar]], [[Yakkha]] (including [[Athpare language|Athpare]]), [[Rai people|Rai]] (including [[Kulung people|Kulung]], [[Bantawa language|Bantawa]], and [[Bahing]])
| [[Kirat Mundhum]]
|-
| [[Kissi people|Kissi]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Mel languages|Mel]] → [[Kissi language|Kissi]]
| [[Guinea]], [[Sierra Leone]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kisi|title=Kisi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kofyar people|Kofyar]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Kofyar language|Kofyar]]
| [[Plateau State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Komi peoples|Komi]]
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Permic languages|Permic]] → [[Komi language|Komi]]
| [[Russia]] ([[Komi Republic]], [[Komi-Permyak Okrug|Permyakia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations"/&gt;
| [[Komi-Zyrian language|Komi-Zyrians]], [[Komi-Permyak language|Komi-Permyaks]], [[Izhma Komi]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Konkani people|Konkani]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Konkani language|Konkani]] 
| [[Goa]] ([[India]])
| 2.3 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Luso-Indian]]s
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Kongo people|Kongo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kongo language|Kongo]]
| [[Kongo Central|Kongoland]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Angola]])
| 10.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kongo-people|title=Kongo|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lari people (Congo)|Lari]], [[Vili people|Vili]], [[Yombe people|Mayombe]], [[Suundi language|Suundi]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as, [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]] 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Konjo people|Konjo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Konjo language (Bantu)|Konjo]]
| [[Rwenzori Mountains]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Uganda]])
| 1.5 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Nande language|Nande]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Konso people|Konso]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Konso language|Konso]]
| [[Konso special woreda|Konso]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Koreans]] 
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
| [[Korean peninsula|Korea]] ([[North Korea]], [[South Korea]])
| 77.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kor|title=Korean|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=19 December 2018}} Total Korean users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Jeju language|Jeju Islanders]], along with [[Korean diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Korean Americans|United States]], [[Koreans in China|China]], [[Koryo-saram|Russia]], [[Koreans in Japan|Japan]], [[Korean Canadians|Canada]], [[Korean Australians|Australia]], [[Koreans in Vietnam|Vietnam]], and the [[Koreans in the Philippines|Philippines]]
| [[Korean shamanism|Shamanism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Kpelle language|Kpelle]]
| [[Liberia]], [[Guinea]]
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kpe|title=Kpelle|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Kpelle [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Kposo people|Kposo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Ghana–Togo Mountain]] → [[Kposo language|Kposo]]
| [[Plateaux Region, Togo|Plateaux]] ([[Togo]]), [[Ghana]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kp0|title=Ikposo|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 March 2019}} Total Kposo users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kru people|Kru]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kru languages|Kru]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Liberia]] ([[Grand Kru County|Grand Kru]] and [[Maryland County|Maryland]] Counties)
| 3.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|li|Liberia}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|iv|Cote D'Ivoire}} Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population, including Grebo, Krahn, and Sapo. Kru residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aizi]], [[Bété people|Bété]], [[Bakwé language|Bakwé]], [[Grebo people|Grebo]], [[Krahn people|Krahn]] (including [[Sapo language|Sapo]]), [[Kuwaa language|Kuwaa]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kumyks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]] 
| [[Dagestan]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Kunama people|Kunama]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Kunama language|Kunama]]
| [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]]
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Kurds]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Kurdistan]] ([[Turkey]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]])
| 45.6 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-kurdish-population-1232551004 The Kurdish Population.] Current Estimate.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bajalan Kurds|Bajalan]], [[Kurds in Turkey|Kurmanjis]], [[Kurds in Iraq|Sorans]], [[Zazas]], [[Feyli Kurds|Feylis]], [[Laks (Iran)|Iranian Laks]], [[Yazidis]], [[Shabak people|Shabak]], along with [[Kurdish population|significant populations]] in [[Kurds in France|France]] and [[Kurds in Germany|Germany]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Kurukh people|Kurukh]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]
| [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] ([[India]])
| 3.7 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Kisan people|Kisan]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Kuteb people|Kuteb]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Jukunoid languages|Jukunoid]] → [[Kuteb language|Kuteb]]
| [[Taraba State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kuteb.tripod.com/biography.html|title=The Kuteb People|publisher=Geoffrey G. Gania|date=2005|accessdate=12 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
| [[Kyrgyzstan]]
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kir|title=Kyrgyz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic populations of Kyrgyzstan, China, and Tajikistan.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Hanafi|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Laks (Caucasus)|Laks]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Lak language|Lak]]
| [[Lakia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Lamaholot people|Lamaholot]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Flores–Lembata languages|Flores–Lembata]] → [[Lamaholot language|Lamaholot]]
| [[Solor]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Lampung people|Lampungs]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Lampung language|Lampung]]
| [[Lampung]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Lao people|Lao]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Lao language|Lao]]
| [[Laos]]
| 4 million&lt;ref name="Peoples of the Buddhist World"/&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Latvians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] → [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
| [[Latvia]]
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lav|title=Latvian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=4 January 2019}} Population total of all languages of the Latvia [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Latgalians (modern)|Latgalians]], [[Kursenieki]], [[Selonia]]ns
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Laz people|Laz]]
| [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] → [[Laz language|Laz]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to both [[Turkification]] and the tendency among Georgia-residing Laz to see themselves as being a Georgian subgroup, the majority of Laz either speak Turkish or Georgian.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lazistan Sanjak|Lazistan]] ([[Turkey]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.haberturk.com/yasam/haber/698621-67-milletten-insanimiz-var|title=67 milletten insanımız var!|date=20 December 2011|author=Bülent Günal|accessdate=31 January 2015|language=tr}} Largest estimate of the Laz population in Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Laz people in Turkey|Turkish Laz]], [[Laz people in Georgia|Georgian Laz]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Lega people|Lega]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Lega language|Lega]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|ref={{harvid|Lega Information}}|url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Lega.html|title=Lega Information|date=3 November 1998|publisher=University of Iowa|accessdate=2011-12-18|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111143545/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Lega.html|archivedate=11 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Lezgins]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Lezgic languages|Lezgic]] → [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]]
| [[Lezgistan]] ([[Russia]], [[Azerbaijan]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lez|title=Lezgins|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic populations of Russia and Azerbaijan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Hlai people|Li]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Hainan]] ([[China]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-li.htm|title=The Li ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=20 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Limba language|Limba]]
| [[Sierra Leone]] ([[Bombali District|Bombali]] and [[Koinadugu District]]s)
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Sierra Leone"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|sl|Sierra Leone}} Sierra Leonean population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Lisu people|Lisu]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]] → [[Lisu language|Lisu]]
| [[China]], [[Myanmar]]
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lisu|title=Lisu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lipo language|Lipo]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lisu Church|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Lithuanians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] → [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| 3.7&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Lietuviai Pasaulyje|url=https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/1704467/15_Lietuviai_pasaulyje.pdf|publisher=Lietuvos statistikos departamentas|accessdate=5 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;–4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.anglija.today/imigracija/lietuviai-lietuvoje-ir-uzsienyje-kur-ir-kiek-musu-yra Lietuviai Lietuvoje ir užsienyje: kur ir kiek mūsų yra] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729062035/http://www.anglija.today/imigracija/lietuviai-lietuvoje-ir-uzsienyje-kur-ir-kiek-musu-yra|date=2015-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Samogitians]], [[Aukstaitians]], [[Lietuvninkai]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Luba people|Luba]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Luban languages|Luban]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Lubaland]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 7 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
| [[Luba-Kasai language|Luba-Kasai]], [[Luba-Katanga language|Luba-Katanga]], [[Hemba people|Hemba]] (including [[Bangubangu]]), [[Songe language|Songe]], [[Lulua people|Lulua]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Luhya people|Luhya]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Luhya language|Luhya]]
| [[Western Province (Kenya)|Western Province]] ([[Kenya]])
| 5.3 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| [[Bukusu]], [[Idakho tribe (Luhya)|Idakho]], [[Isukha tribe (Luhya)|Isukha]], [[Kabras tribe (Luhya)|Kabras]], [[Khayo tribe (Luhya)|Khayo]], [[Kisa tribe (Luhya)|Kisa]], [[Marachi tribe (Luhya)|Marachi]], [[Maragoli tribe (Luhya)|Maragoli]], [[Marama tribe (Luhya)|Marama]], [[Nyole tribe (Luhya)|Nyole]], [[Samia tribe (Luhya)|Samia]], [[Tachoni tribe (Luhya)|Tachoni]], [[Tiriki tribe (Luhya)|Tiriki]], [[Tsotso tribe (Luhya)|Tsotso]], [[Wanga tribe (Luhya)|Wanga]], 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Luo people (Kenya)|Luo]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Luo dialect|Dholuo]]
| [[Kenya]]
| 4 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Lurs]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Luri language|Luri]]
| [[Iran]] ([[Lorestan Province|Lorestan]], [[Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province|Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad]], [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]], [[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]], and [[Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province|Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari]] Provinces)
| 5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lori-language-ii|title=LORI LANGUAGE ii. Sociolinguistic Status – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|language=en|access-date=2018-08-20|quote=In 2003, the Lori-speaking population in Iran was estimated at 4.2 million speakers, or about 6 percent of the national figure (Anonby, 2003b, p. 173). Given the nationwide growth in population since then, the number of Lori speakers in 2012 is likely closer to 5 million.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiari]], [[Laks (Iran)|Iranian Laks]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Luxembourgers]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[German language|German]] → [[Luxembourgish]]
| [[Luxembourg]], [[Arelerland]] ([[Belgium]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ltz|title=Luxembourgish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total first-language Luxembourgish users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in [[Luxembourgish Brazilians|Brazil]] and the [[Luxembourgish Americans|United States]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Maasai people|Maasai]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Maasai language|Maasai]]
| [[Maasailand]] ([[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]]) 
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mas|title=Maasai|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=13 January 2019}} Total Maasai users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Samburu people|Samburu]], [[Arusha people|Arusha]], [[Kwavi people|Kwavi]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
| [[North Macedonia]] 
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95|last= Nasevski|first= Boško|author2= Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica|year=1995|publisher=Матица на Иселениците на Македонија|location=Skopje|pages=52–53}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Torbesh]], [[Mijaks]], along with [[Macedonian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Macedonian Australians|Australia]] and [[Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia|Greece]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Madi people|Madi]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] → [[Ma'di language|Ma'di]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[South Sudan]], [[Uganda]]
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Madurese people|Madurese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Madurese language|Madurese]]
| [[Madura Island|Madura]] ([[Indonesia]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to poor soil condition in Madura, the majority now live on [[Java]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 7.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|[[Bawean|Boyanese]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Nahdlatul Ulama|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Mafa people|Mafa]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Mafa language|Mafa]]
| [[Cameroon]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/maf|title=Mafa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 February 2019}} Total Mafa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Magahi people|Magahi]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Magahi language|Magahi]]
| [[Magadha]] ([[India]])
| 12.7 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Magars]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Magar language|Magar]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The majority of the Magars have recently switched to Nepali.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nepal]]
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Magar|title=Magar|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanao]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanao]]
| [[Maguindanao]] ([[Philippines]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maguindanao-people|title=Maguindanao|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Maithils]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
| [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] ([[India]], [[Nepal]])
| 40 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/kirti-jha-azad-separate-mithila-state-cricket/1/452361.html|publisher=m.indiatoday.in|title=Kirti Azad demands a separate Mithila state|access-date=14 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Karan Kayastha]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Makassar people|Makassarese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Makassarese language|Makassarese]]
| [[South Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 2.7 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|  
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Makonde people|Makonde]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Makonde language|Makonde]]
| [[Tanzania]], [[Mueda Plateau]] ([[Mozambique]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=John Ndembwike|title=Tanzania: Profile of a Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqcHBZ_0n6gC&amp;pg=PA149|date=October 2009|publisher=Intercontinental Books|isbn=978-9987-9308-1-4|pages=149}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Machinga people|Machinga]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Makua people|Makua]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Makhuwa language|Makhuwa]]
| [[Mozambique]]
| 3.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Andrew Dalby|title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKSeVLghcfQC&amp;pg=PA386|year=1998|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|isbn=978-0-231-11568-1|pages=386–387|author-link=Andrew Dalby}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lomwe people|Lomwe]], [[Chuwabu language|Chuwabu]], [[Moniga language|Moniga]], [[Koti language|Koti]], [[Nathembo language|Nathembo]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
| [[Madagascar]], [[Comoros]], [[Mayotte]], [[Réunion]], [[Mauritius]]
| 25 million
| [[Merina people|Merina]], [[Sihanaka]], [[Betsileo people|Betsileo]], [[Zafimaniry]], [[Antaifasy]], [[Antemoro people|Antemoro]], [[Antaisaka people|Antaisaka]], [[Antambahoaka]], [[Antandroy|Tandroy]], [[Antankarana]], [[Antanosy people|Antanosy]], [[Bara people|Bara]], [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]], [[Bezanozano]], [[Mahafaly]], [[Makoa]], [[Mikea people|Mikea]], [[Sakalava people|Sakalava]], [[Tanala]], [[Tsimihety people|Tsimihety]], [[Vezo people|Vezo]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]]
| [[Malay world]] ([[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]])
| 60.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/msa|title=Malay|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Malay [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bruneian Malay people|Bruneians]], [[Kedahan Malay people|Kedahans]], [[Thai Malays|Pattani]], [[Pahang Malays|Pahang]], [[Musi people|Musi]], [[Palembang]]ese, [[Pontianaks]], [[Terengganuan Malay people|Terengganuarians]], [[Kelantanese Malay people|Kelantanese]], [[Perakian Malay people|Perakians]], [[Berau Malays|Berau]], [[Proto-Malay]] (including [[Orang Kuala]], [[Jakun people|Jakun]], [[Orang Rimba]], [[Orang Seletar]], and [[Temuan people|Temuan]]), [[Lubu people|Lubu]], [[Musi language|Palembangnese]], [[Cape Malays]], [[Cocos Malays]], [[Bangka Malay]]s
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Malayali]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Malayalam]]
| [[Kerala]] ([[India]])
| 34.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Ambalavasi]], [[Dheevara (caste)|Dheevara]], [[Nair]], [[Paravar]], [[Saint Thomas Christians]] (including [[Knanaya]]s), [[Mappila]]s, [[Ezhava]], along with significant populations in the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait and Bahrain]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Maldivians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Maldivian language|Maldivian]]
| [[Maldives]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/div|title=Maldivian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 December 2018}} Total Maldivian users in all countries&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mahl people|Mahls]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Maltese people|Maltese]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Arabic]] → [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
| [[Malta]]
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mlt|title=Maltese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 December 2018}} Total Maltese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gozitans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mambila people|Mambila]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mambila language|Mambila]]
| [[Mambilla Plateau]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mzk|title=Mambila, Nigeria|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mcu|title=Mambila, Cameroon|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Somyev language|Somyev]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Manchu people|Manchu]] 
| [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] → [[Manchu language|Manchu]]&lt;ref name="Tungusic" group="note"&gt;The majority of the Tungusic languages are endangered, and many Tungusic ethnic groups now mostly speak only Russian or Chinese depending on the location of their homeland.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Manchuria]] ([[China]])
| 10.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|script-title=zh:《中国2010年人口普查资料（上中下》|trans-title=Data of 2010 China Population Census|publisher=China Statistics Press|year=2012|isbn=9787503765070|ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Manchu shamanism|Shamanism]]
|-
| [[Mandarese people|Mandarese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Mandar language|Mandar]]
| [[West Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mdr|title=Mandar|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Manding languages|Manding]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mali]], [[The Gambia]], [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]]
| 13&lt;ref name="The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary"/&gt;–20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Godfrey Mwakikagile|title=The Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZL7wIvRlXSwC|year=2010|publisher=New Africa Press|isbn=978-9987-16-023-5|pages=49}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bolon language|Bolon]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Demographics of Montserrat|Montserratians]], [[Cape Verdeans]], and [[Demographics of Martinique|Martinicans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Manggarai people|Manggarai]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]] → [[Manggarai language|Manggarai]]
| [[Manggarai Regency|Manggarai]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.8 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Manjak people|Manjak]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Manjak language|Manjak]]
| [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mfv|title=Mandjak|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 February 2019}} Total Manjak users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Māori people|Māori]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Māori language|Māori]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Although the Māori have been able to [[Māori language revival|halt]] the extinction of their language, the majority still only speak [[New Zealand English|English]] fluently.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[New Zealand]]
| 0.9 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Cook Islanders]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Mapuche]]
| [[Mapuche language|Mapudungun]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to gradual [[Hispanicization]] following the [[Occupation of Araucanía]], the majority of Mapuche can only speak [[Chilean Spanish|Spanish]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] ([[Chile]], [[Argentina]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mapuche|title=Mapuche|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Huilliche people|Huilliche]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Chileans]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Maranao people|Maranao]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Maranao language|Maranao]]
| [[Lanao (province)|Lanao]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maranao|title=Maranao|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Marathi people|Marathi]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| [[Maharashtra]] ([[India]]) 
| 83 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Mahar]], [[Maratha]], [[Kunbi]], [[Dhangar]], [[Bhoi]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Mari people|Mari]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Mari language|Mari]]
| [[Mari El]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Meadow Mari language|Meadow Mari]], [[Hill Mari language|Hill Mari]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Masa people|Masa]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Massa language|Masana]]
| [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]]
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name=joshuapromas/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]], [[Islam]]&lt;ref name =joshuapromas&gt;{{cite web|title=Masa People|url=http://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13560/CM|website=Joshua Project|accessdate=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[Masalit people|Masalit]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Masalit language|Masalit]]
| [[Sudan]], [[Chad]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mls|title=Masalit|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=22 September 2016}} Total Masalit users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Maya peoples|Maya]]
| [[Mayan languages|Mayan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], [[Mexico]] ([[Yucatán]], [[Campeche]], [[Quintana Roo]], [[Tabasco]], [[Chiapas]])
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|language=es|author1=Lorenzo Ochoa|author2=Patricia Martel(dir.)|title=Lengua y cultura mayas|publisher=UNAM|year=2002|isbn=9703200893|pages=170|quote=''El "Pueblo Maya" lo constituyen actualmente algo menos de 6 millones de hablantes de 25 idiomas''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Yucatec Maya language|Maya]], [[Achi people|Achi]], [[Chuj people|Chuj]], [[Ch'orti' people|Ch'orti']], [[Itza people|Itza]], [[K'iche' people|K'iche']], [[Q'eqchi' people|Q'eqchi']], [[Xinca people|Xinca]], [[Tektitek people|Tektitek]], [[Huastec people|Huastecan]], [[Mopan people|Mopan]], [[Lacandon people|Lacandon]], [[Chontal Maya|Chontal]], [[Akatek people|Akatek]], [[Jakaltek people|Jakaltek]], [[Q’anjob’al people|Q'anjob'al]], [[Tzeltal people|Tzeltal]], [[Mocho’ language|Mocho']], [[Tojolab'al]], [[Mam people|Mam]], [[Ixil people|Ixil]], [[Tzotzil people|Tzotzil]], [[Poqomam people|Poqomam]], [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatecan Maya]], [[Motozintlecos]], [[Awakatek]], [[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]], [[Sakapultek people|Sakapultek]], [[Sipakapense people|Sipakapense]], [[Uspantek people|Uspantek]], [[Ch'ol]], [[Tz'utujil people|Tz'utujil]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Guatemalans]] (including [[Hispanic Belizean]]s) and [[Mexicans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mazahua people|Mazahua]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Oto-Pamean languages|Oto-Pamean]] → [[Mazahua language|Mazahua]]
| [[State of Mexico]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"&gt;[http://site.inali.gob.mx/pdf/libro_lenguas_indigenas_nacionales_en_riesgo_de_desaparicion.pdf ''México: Lenguas indígenas nacionales.''] Mexican population only. Number of indigenous language speakers. Figure taken using the 2010 figures of Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mazatec]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Popolocan languages|Popolocan]] → [[Mazatecan languages|Mazatecan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Oaxaca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Ayautla Mazatec|Ayautla]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mbaka people|Mbaka]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Mbaka language|Mbaka]]
| [[Central African Republic]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mehri people|Mehri]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Mehri language|Mehri]]
| [[Al Mahrah Governorate|Mahra]] ([[Yemen]], [[Oman]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gdq|title=Mehri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sqt|title=Soqotri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}} Figure taken by the total Mehri users in all countries with the Soqotri population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Soqotri people|Soqotri]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Meitei people|Meitei]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] → [[Meitei language|Meitei]]
| [[Manipur]] ([[India]])
| 1.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Loi]]
| [[Hinduism]] → [[Vaishnavism]]
|-
| [[Melanau people|Melanau]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Melanau language|Melanau]]
| [[Sarawak]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="The Borneo Post"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mende people|Mende]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Mende language|Mende]]
| [[Sierra Leone]] ([[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|Southern]] and [[Eastern Province, Sierra Leone|Eastern]] Provinces)
| 1.9 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Miꞌkmaq]]
| [[Algic languages|Algic]] → [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] → [[Miꞌkmaq language|Miꞌkmaq]]&lt;ref name="First Nation" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mi'kma'ki]] ([[Canada]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="First Nation Census"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Yao people|Mien]]
| [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] → [[Mienic languages|Mienic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[China]] ([[Hunan]], [[Guizhou]]), [[Vietnam]]
| 2.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-yao.htm|title=The Yao ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Iu Mien people|Iu Mien]], [[Kim Mun language|Kim Mun]], [[Dzao Min language|Dzao Min]], [[Biao Min language|Biao Min]], [[Bunu languages|Bunu]], [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]], [[Biao Mon language|Biao Mon]]
| [[Yao folk religion]]
|-
| [[Mijikenda peoples|Mijikenda]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Mijikenda language|Mijikenda]]
| [[Coast Province]] ([[Kenya]])
| 2 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| [[Chonyi people|Chonyi]], [[Giriama people|Giriama]], [[Digo people|Digo]], [[Segeju people|Segeju]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Minahasan people|Minahasan]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Minahasan languages|Minahasan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Minahassa Peninsula]] ([[Indonesia]]) 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Tonsawang language|Tonsawang]], [[Tontemboan language|Tontemboan]], [[Tondano language|Tondano]], [[Tombulu language|Tombulu]], [[Tonsea language|Tonsea]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]]
| [[Minangkabau Highlands]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 6.5 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Mising people|Mising]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tani languages|Tani]] → [[Mising language|Mising]]
| [[India]] ([[Assam]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Donyi-Polo]]

|-
| [[Miskito people|Miskito]]
| [[Misumalpan languages|Misumalpan]] → [[Miskito language|Miskito]] 
| [[Mosquito Coast]] ([[Nicaragua]], [[Honduras]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/17/world/americas/nicaragua-dispute-over-indigenous-land-erupts-in-wave-of-killings.html|title=Nicaragua Dispute Over Indigenous Land Erupts in Wave of Killings|last=Robles|first=Frances|date=2016-10-16|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-03-22|issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Moravian Church|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Mixe]]
| [[Mixe–Zoque languages|Mixe–Zoque]] → [[Mixe languages|Mixe]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Oaxaca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mixtec]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Mixtecan languages|Mixtecan]] → [[Mixtec language|Mixtec]]
| [[La Mixteca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Trique]], [[Cuicatecs]], [[Amoltepec Mixtec|Amoltepec]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mon people|Mon]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Mon language|Mon]] 
| [[Mon State]] ([[Myanmar]]) 
| 1.1 million&lt;ref name="Burma"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bm|Burma}} Myanmarese population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] 
|-
| [[Mongo people|Mongo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Mongo language|Mongo]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] ([[Province of Équateur|Équateur]], [[Tshuapa]], [[Mongala]], [[Nord-Ubangi]], [[Sud-Ubangi]])
| 3.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mongo|title=Mongo|work=[[Encyclopedia.com]]|access-date=11 April 2017}} Number of speakers of all [[Bangi–Tetela languages|Mongo languages]]. Source dates backs to 1977; population most likely grown since then.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lia-Ntomba language|Bolia, Ntomba]], [[Ngando people|Ngando]], [[Iyaelima people|Iyaelima]], [[Mbole people|Mbole]], [[Mpama people|Mpama]], [[Nkutu language|Nkutu]], [[Sengele language|Sengele]], [[Hendo language|Hendo]], [[Dengese people|Dengese]], [[Tetela people|Tetela]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Mongols]] 
| [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Inner Mongolia]] ([[China]]), [[Mongolia]]
| 7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mon|title=Mongolian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=22 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dta|title=Daur|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bua|title=Buriat|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xal|title=Kalmyk-Oirat|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/peh|title=Bonan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mjg|title=Tu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total users of the Mongolian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]], the Buryat [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]], and Oirat with the ethnic populations of Dagur, Bonan, and Monguor.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Buryats]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Oirats]], [[Kalmyks]], [[Daur people|Daur]], [[Moghol people|Moghols]], [[Hamnigan]], [[Monguor people|Monguor]], [[Yugur]], [[Khatso]], [[Bonan people|Bonan]], [[Sart Kalmyks]], [[Soyot]], [[Sichuan Mongols]], [[Sogwo Arig]], [[Altai Uriankhai]], [[Ordos Mongols|Ordos]], [[Kangjia|Kanja]], [[Sogwo Arig]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughals]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Mongondow people|Mongondow]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Mongondow language|Mongondow]]
| [[Bolaang Mongondow Regency|Mongondowia]] ([[Indonesia]]) 
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mog|title=Mongondow|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Montenegrins]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]
| [[Montenegro]]
| 0.6 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| Significant populations in [[Montenegrins of Serbia|Serbia]] and the [[Montenegrin Americans|United States]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Mordvins]]
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mordovia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Erzya language|Erzyas]], [[Mokshas]], [[Qaratays]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Mossi people|Mossi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Mossi language|Mossi]]
| [[Mossi Kingdoms|Mossiland]] ([[Burkina Faso]])
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mossi|title=Mossi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mumuye people|Mumuye]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Adamawa languages|Adamawa]] → [[Mumuye language|Mumuye]]
| [[Taraba State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mzm|title=Mumuye|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Muna people|Munanese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Celebic languages|Celebic]] → [[Muna–Buton languages|Munanese]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Muna Island|Muna]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Munda people|Mundas]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Munda languages|Munda]] → [[Mundari language|Mundari]]
| [[India]] ([[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]])
| 2.2 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Sabar people|Sabar]], [[Mahali]]
| [[Sarnaism]]
|-
| [[Murut people|Murut]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Murutic languages|Murutic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Interior Division|Murutia]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|title= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia|language=Malay, English|accessdate=17 June 2012|publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011081938/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Okolod language|Okolod]], [[Keningau Murut language|Keningau]], [[Tagal Murut language|Tagal]], [[Paluan language|Paluan]], [[Selungai Murut language|Selungai]], [[Timugon language|Timugon]], [[Serudung language|Serudung]], [[Sembakung language|Sembakung]], [[Tidong people|Tidong]], [[Kalabakan language|Kalabakan]], [[Bulungan]], [[Bookan language|Bookan]] 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Muscogee]]
| [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] → [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]]&lt;ref name="American Indians" group="note"/&gt;
| [[United States]] ([[Alabama]], [[Tennessee]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]])&lt;ref name="Trial of Tears" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
| [[Coushatta]], [[Alabama people|Alibamu]], [[Hitchiti]], [[Natchez Nation|Natchez]], [[Seminole]]s (including [[Black Seminoles]]), [[Yuchi people|Yuchi]], [[Shawnee people|Shawnee]], [[Creoles of color]], [[Miccosukee]]
| [[Native American religion]] → [[Creek mythology]]
|-
| [[Musgum people|Musgum]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Musgu language|Musgu]]
| [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North Region]] ([[Cameroon]]), [[Chad]] ([[Chari-Baguirmi (region)|Chari-Baguirmi]], [[Mayo-Kebbi Est]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mug|title=Musgu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 February 2019}} Total Musgu users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mwera people|Mwera]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Mwera language|Mwera]]
| [[Tanzania]] ([[Mtwara Region|Mtwara]] and [[Ruvuma Region|Ruvuma]] Regions)
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mwe|title=Mwera|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Naga people|Naga]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]&lt;ref name="Chin–Naga" group="note"/&gt;
| [[India]] ([[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Assam]]), [[Myanmar]]
| 1.7 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Angami people|Angami]], [[Ao Naga|Ao]], [[Sangtam Naga|Sangtam]], [[Yimchunger]], [[Lotha Naga|Lotha]], [[Chakhesang Naga|Chakhesang]] (including [[Chokri language|Chokri]] and [[Kheza language|Khezha]]), [[Mao Naga|Mao]], [[Pochury Naga|Pochury]], [[Rengma Naga|Rengma]], [[Tangkhul Naga|Tangkhul]], [[Maring Naga|Maring]], [[Zeme Naga|Zemi]], [[Liangmai Naga|Liangmei]], [[Rongmei Naga|Kabui]], [[Maram Naga|Maram]], [[Konyak people|Konyak]], [[Chang Naga|Chang]], [[Wancho people|Wancho]], [[Phom Naga|Phom]], [[Khiamniungan people|Khiemnungan]], [[Tangsa people|Tangsa]], [[Nocte people|Nocte]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Nagpuri people|Nagpuri]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]  → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Sadri language|Sadri]]
| [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] ([[India]])
| 4.3 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Chik Baraik]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Nahuas]] 
| [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] → [[Nahuatl]] 
| [[Mexico]] 
| 1.5 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Huasteca Nahuatl|Huasteca Nahuas]], [[Mexicaneros]], [[Sierra Puebla Nahuatl|Sierra Puebla Nahuas]], [[Guerrero Nahuatl|Guerrero Nahuas]], [[Orizaba Nahuatl|Orizaba Nahuas]], [[Tehuacan–Zongolica Nahuatl|Southeastern Puebla Nahuas]], [[Tlaxcala–Puebla Nahuatl|Central Nahuas]], [[Pipil people|Pipil]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Mexicans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Nama people|Nama]]
| [[Khoe languages|Khoe]] → [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoe]]
| [[Namaland]] ([[Namibia]]), [[South Africa]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Namibia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Navajo]]
| [[Dené–Yeniseian languages|Dené–Yeniseian]] → [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] → [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Apachean]] → [[Navajo language|Navajo]]
| [[Navajo Nation]] ([[United States]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Newar people|Newar]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Newar language|Newar]]
| [[Kathmandu Valley]] ([[Nepal]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Newar|title=Newar|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chitrakar]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Ngaju people|Ngaju]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Ngaju language|Ngaju]]
| [[Central Kalimantan]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nij|title=Ngaju|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bkr|title=Bakumpai|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bakumpai people|Bakumpai]], [[Meratus Dayak|Meratus]]
| [[Kaharingan]]
|-
| [[Ngalop people|Ngalop]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] → [[Dzongkha]]
| [[Bhutan]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bt|Bhutan}} Bhutanese population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kheng people|Kheng]], [[Bumthang language|Bumthang]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Ngbandi people|Ngbandi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Ngbandi language|Ngbandi]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zyama.com/ngbandi/pics..htm Ngbandi Art]&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Yakoma people|Yakoma]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Nias people|Nias]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] → [[Nias language|Nias]]
| [[Nias]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Nogais]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Nogai language|Nogai]] 
| [[Russia]] ([[Stavropol Krai]], [[Dagestan]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Ak Nogai]], [[Karagash]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Norwegians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] 
| [[Norway]]
| 5.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nor|title=Norwegian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 February 2019}} Total Norwegian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Norwegian diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Norwegian Americans|United States]], and [[Norwegian Canadians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Nubians]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nubian languages|Nubian]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Nubia]] ([[Egypt]], [[Sudan]])
| 3-4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/nubians/|title=Nubians|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 June 2019}} Possible number of Nubians living in Egypt.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nobiin language|Nobiin]], [[Kenzi language|Mattokki]], [[Dongolawi language|Dongolawi]], [[Midob people|Midob]], [[Hill Nubian languages|Hill Nubians]] (including [[Dilling people|Dilling]], [[Debri people|Debri]], [[Ghulfan people|Ghulfan]], [[Kadaru people|Kadaru]], [[Karko people|Karko]], and [[Wali language (Sudan)|Wali]]), [[Birgid language|Birgid]], [[Ja'alin tribe|Ja'alin]] (including [[Bedaria tribe|Bedaria]]), [[Shaigiya tribe|Shaigiya]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Nuer people|Nuer]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Nuer language|Nuer]]
| [[Nuerland]] ([[South Sudan]])
| 2.9 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Nùng people|Nùng]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]] → [[Nung language (Tai)|Nung]]
| [[Vietnam]], [[Guangxi]] ([[China]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
|
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Nuristanis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] ([[Afghanistan]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/47.htm|title=Afghanistan - Nuristani|work=countrystudies.us}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Safed-Posh Kaffirs]] (including [[Askunu language|Askunis]]), [[Kamkata-viri language|Kamkata-viris]] (including [[Kata people|Kata]] and [[Kom people (Afghanistan)|Kom]])
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Nyishi people|Nyishi]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tani languages|Tani]] → [[Nishi language|Nishi]]
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]] ([[India]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Occitans]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Occitan language|Occitan]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Occitania]] ([[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]])
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/1626/france/occitanspeakers.html|title=''World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous People''|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429201218/http://www.minorityrights.org/1626/france/occitanspeakers.html|archivedate=2009-04-29}} Total number of people with some knowledge of Occitan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aranese]], [[Auvergne|Auvergnats]], [[Provence|Provençals]], [[Languedoc]]iens, [[Gascony|Gascons]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Odia people|Odia]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Odia language|Odia]] 
| [[Odisha]] ([[India]])
| 37 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Utkala Brahmin]]s, [[Khandayat]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Ogoni people|Ogoni]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ogoni languages|Ogoni]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Rivers State|Ogoniland]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ogo|title=Khana|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bvj|title=Baan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/elm|title=Eleme|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gkn|title=Gokana|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tkq|title=Tee|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the Tẹẹ ethnic population with the other four sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Baan language|Baan]], [[Eleme people|Eleme]], [[Gokana language|Gokana]], [[Tee language|Tẹẹ]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ojibwe]]
| [[Algic languages|Algic]] → [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] → [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to a long history of [[forced assimilation]] by both [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|American]] and [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Canadian]] governments, the vast majority can only speak English.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anishinaabe tribal political organizations|Anishinaabeland]] ([[Canada]], [[United States]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="American Indian/First Nation"/&gt;
| [[Oji-Cree]], [[Odawa]], [[Potawatomi]], [[Mississaugas]]
| [[Midewiwin]]
|-
| [[Oromo people|Oromo]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Oromo language|Oromo]]
| [[Oromia Region|Oromia]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[Kenya]]
| 25.5 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| [[Borana Oromo people|Boran]], [[Barentu Oromo people|Barentoo]], [[Salale Oromo people|Salale]], [[Macha Oromo people|Macha]], [[Arsi Oromo|Arsi]], [[Wollo Oromo people|Wollo]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Ossetians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] 
| [[South Ossetia]], [[North Ossetia-Alania]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/oss|title=Ossetic|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=19 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic population of Russia with the Georgian, Syrian, and Turkish populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Iron people|Iron]], [[Digor people|Digor]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Ot Danum people|Ot Danum]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Ot Danum language|Ot Danum]]
| [[Indonesia]] ([[West Kalimantan|West]] and [[Central Kalimantan|Central]] Kalimantan)
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Lawangan people|Lawangan]], [[Ma'anyan people|Ma'anyan]]
| [[Kaharingan]]
|-
| [[Otomi]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Otomian languages|Otomian]] → [[Otomi language|Otomi]]
| [[Mexico]] ([[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], [[Puebla]], [[Veracruz]], [[State of Mexico]], [[Querétaro]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Ovambo language|Ovambo]]
| [[Ovamboland]] ([[Namibia]]), [[Angola]]
| 1.6 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Ovimbundu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Umbundu]]
| [[Angola]]
| 4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ovimbundu|title=Ovimbundu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Pa'O people|Pa'O]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Karenic languages|Karenic]] → [[Pa'O language|Pa'O]]
| [[Shan State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 0.8 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Pamiris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Pamir languages|Pamir]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Pamir Mountains]] ([[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[China]]) 
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Shughni language|Shughni]], [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]] (including [[Tajiks of Xinjiang]]), [[Yazghulami language|Yazghulami]], [[Munji language|Munji]], [[Yidgha language|Yidgha]], [[Sanglechi language|Sanglechi]], [[Ishkashimi language|Ishkashimi]], [[Wakhi people|Wakhi]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Isma'ilism|Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Pangasinan people|Pangasinese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]
| [[Pangasinan]] ([[Philippines]]) 
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pangasinan|title=Pangasinan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Papel people|Papel]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Papel language|Papel]]
| [[Biombo Region]] ([[Guinea-Bissau]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|pu|Guinea-Bissau}} Bissau-Guinean population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Pare people|Pare]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Pare language|Pare]]
| [[Pare Mountains]] ([[Tanzania]])
| 0.9 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Pashayi people|Pashayi]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] → [[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Afghanistan]] ([[Laghman Province|Laghman]], [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] and [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]] Provinces)
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/psi|title=Pashai, Southeast|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 January 2019}} Ethnic population; includes other Pashayi speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Pashtuns]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Pashto]]
| [[Pashtunistan]] ([[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]])
| 49.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pbu|title=Pashto, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Possible ethnic population; includes Southern and Central Pashto speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pashtun Americans]], [[Kakar]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Pedi people|Pedi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Sotho–Tswana languages|Sotho–Tswana]] → [[Northern Sotho language|Sepedi]]
| [[Limpopo]] ([[South Africa]])
| 3.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pedi|title=Pedi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=28 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Pende people|Pende]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Pende language|Pende]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Pende|url=https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Pende|work=Art &amp; Life in Africa|publisher=University of Iowa|accessdate=29 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Persian people|Persians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] 
| [[Iran]]
| 52.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pes|title=Persian, Iranian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=11 December 2018}} Total Iranian Persian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tat]], along with [[Iranian diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Iranian Americans|United States]], the [[Iranians in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], [[Iranian Canadians|Canada]], [[Iranians in Germany|Germany]], the [[Iranians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Ajam of Bahrain|Bahrain]], [[Iranian Australians|Australia]], and [[Swedish Iranians|Sweden]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Poles]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Polish language|Polish]]
| [[Poland]] 
| 58–60 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://polmap.pdg.pl/mapy/polonia_na_swiecie.htm |title="Polmap. Rozmieszczenie ludności pochodzenia polskiego (w mln)" |access-date=3 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815064442/http://polmap.pdg.pl/mapy/polonia_na_swiecie.htm |archive-date=15 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Polish diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Polish Americans|United States]], [[Polish Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Poles in Germany|Germany]], [[Polish Canadians|Canada]], [[Poles in Iceland|Iceland]], [[Poles in Sweden|Sweden]], [[Poles in France|France]], the [[Poles in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Polish Argentine|Argentina]], [[Poles in Belarus|Belarus]], [[Polish minority in Russia|Russia]], [[Polish Australians|Australia]], [[Poles in Lithuania|Lithuania]], [[Poles in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Polish minority in the Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and [[Poles in Norway|Norway]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| [[Portugal]]
| 222.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/por|title=Portuguese|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Total first-language Portuguese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Azores|Azorean]]s, [[Madeira]]ns, along with [[Portuguese Empire|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Brazilians]] (including [[Ribeirinhos]] and [[Pardo Brazilians]]), [[Cape Verdeans]], [[Portuguese Angolans]], [[Portuguese Mozambicans]], [[Luso-Indian]]s, [[Macanese people|Macanese]], [[Kristang people|Kristangs]], and [[Portuguese Burghers]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Punjabis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] 
| [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]] ([[Pakistan]], [[India]])
| 125 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pan|title=Punjabi, Eastern|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnb|title=Punjabi, Western|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining total users of Punjabi, Eastern and Punjabi, Western in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sikhs]], [[Jat people|Jat]], [[Khatri]]s, [[Arain]], [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]], along with [[Punjabi diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[British Punjabis|United Kingdom]], [[Punjabi Canadians|Canada]], and the [[Punjabi Americans|United States]].
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Purépecha]]
| [[Purépecha language|Purépecha]]
| [[Michoacán]] ([[Mexico]]) 
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Qashqai language|Qashqai]] 
| [[Fars Province]] ([[Iran]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/qxq|title=Kashkay|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 February 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Qiang people|Qiang]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture]] ([[China]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-qiang.htm|title=The Qiang ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=25 February 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Qiang folk religion]]
|-
| [[Quechua people|Quechua]] 
| [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Ecuador]]
| 7.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/que|title=Quechua|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Quechua [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Yaru Quechua|Yaru]], [[Cusco Quechua|Cusco]], [[Ayacucho Quechua|Ayacucho]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Peruvians]], [[Ecuadorians]], and [[Bolivians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Rade people|Rade]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Rade language|Rade]]
| [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] ([[Vietnam]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Rajasthani people|Rajasthanis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] → [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]
| [[Rajasthan]] ([[India]])
| 25.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Banjara]], [[Gurjar]]s, [[Rajput]]s (including [[Mahyavanshi]], [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandels]], and [[Molesalam Rajput|Molesalam]]), [[Marwari people|Marwari]], [[Charan]], [[Kachhi (caste)|Kachhi]], [[Meena]]
| [[Hindusim]]
|-
| [[Rajbongshi people|Rajbongshi]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Kamtapuri language|Kamtapuri]]
| [[India]] ([[Assam]], [[West Bengal]]), [[Bangladesh]]
| 15 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/rkt|title=Rangpuri|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 February 2019}} Total first-language Rangpuri users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Hindusim]]
|-
| [[Rakhine people|Rakhine]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Burmese language|Burmese]] → [[Arakanese language|Arakanese]] 
| [[Rakhine State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arakanese|title=Arakanese|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Marma people|Marma]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] 
|-
| [[Rejang people|Rejangese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] → [[Rejang language|Rejang]] 
| [[Rejang Lebong Regency]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;Wurm, Stephen A. and [[Shiro Hattori]], (eds.) (1981) ''Language Atlas of the Pacific Area'' Australian Academy of the Humanities in collaboration with the Japan Academy, Canberra, {{ISBN|0-85883-239-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Rohingya people|Rohingyas]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]] 
| [[Rakhine State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 2.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=David Mathieson|title=Perilous Plight: Burma's Rohingya Take to the Seas|date=2009|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|isbn=9781564324856|page=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Romani people|Roma]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Romani language|Romani]]
| [[Europe]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]], [[Slovakia]], [[Czech Republic]])&lt;ref name="nomadic" group="note"/&gt;
| 12 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12977975|work=[[BBC News]]|title=EU demands action to tackle Roma poverty|date=5 April 2011}} Does not include those residing outside of Europe.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Romani people in Italy|Roma]] (including [[Romani people in Austria|Austrian Roma]]), [[Romani people in Spain|Iberian Kale]], [[Finnish Kale]], [[Kale (Welsh Romanies)|Welsh Kale]], [[Romanichal]], [[Sinti]], [[Romani people in France|Manush]], [[Norwegian and Swedish Travellers|Romanisæl]], [[Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians]], [[Boyash]], [[Lom people|Lom]], [[Dom people|Dom]] (including [[Romani people in Egypt|Halebi]], [[Lori people|Lori]], and [[Madari]]), along with [[Romani diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Romani Americans|United States]], and [[Romani people in Brazil|Brazil]].
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Romanians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Romanian language|Romanian]] 
| [[Romania]], [[Moldova]]
| 23.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/ron|title=Romanian|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=13 November 2014}} Total Romanian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Moldovans]], along with [[Romanian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Romanians in Italy|Italy]], [[Romanians in Germany|Germany]], [[Romanians in Spain|Spain]], [[Romanians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], the [[Romanians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], and [[Romanians in France|France]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Russians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Russian language|Russian]] 
| [[Russia]]
| 129 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2013/0571/tema02.php|title=журнал "Демоскоп Weekly" № 571 - 572 14 - 31 октября 2013. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сжимающееся русскоязычие. Демографические изменения - не на пользу русскому языку|publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cossacks]], [[Pomors]], [[Lipovans]], along with [[Russian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Russians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Russians in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Russians in Germany|Germany]], the [[Russian Americans|United States]], [[Russians in Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]], [[Russians in Israel|Israel]], [[Russian Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Russians in Belarus|Belarus]], [[Russian Canadians|Canada]], [[Russians in Latvia|Latvia]], [[Russians in Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]], [[Russians in Moldova|Moldova]], [[Russians in Estonia|Estonia]], [[Russians in Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]], [[Russians in France|France]], [[Russians in Lithuania|Lithuania]] and [[Russians in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Ryukyuan people|Ryukyuans]]
| [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] → [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;All Ryukyuan speakers are seen as one ethnicity; however, due to a history of [[Dialect card|forced assimilation]] by the Japanese government, the majority can only speak Japanese.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Japan]])
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|editor1-last=Shimoji|editor1-first=Michinori|editor2-last=Pellard|editor2-first=Thomas|year=2010|title=An Introduction to Ryukyuan languages|publisher=ILCAA|place=Tokyo|pages=2|url=https://lingdy.aa-ken.jp/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/2015-papers-and-presentations-An_introduction_to_Ryukyuan_languages.pdf|isbn=9784863370722|accessdate=June 10, 2018|ref=harv}} Total population of the Ryukyu Islands.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Amami Islands|Amami]] (including [[Kikaijima|Kikai]], [[Amami Ōshima]], [[Tokunoshima]], [[Okinoerabujima|Okinoerabu]], and [[Yoronjima|Yoron]]), [[Okinawa Islands|Okinawan]] (including [[Kunigami language|Kunigami]]) [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]], [[Yaeyama Islands|Yaeyama]], [[Yonaguni]]
| [[Ryukyuan religion]]
|-
| [[Rusyns]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] 
| [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] ([[Ukraine]], [[Slovakia]], [[Poland]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Rusyn identity is mostly limited to those residing outside of Carpathian Ruthenia. Within Carpathian Ruthenia itself (especially in the Ukrainian region), the majority of its residents identify themselves as being Ukrainian.&lt;/ref&gt; 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Paul Magocsi|authorlink=Paul Robert Magocsi|url=http://www.litopys.org.ua/rizne/magocie.htm|year=1995|title=The Rusyn Question|journal=Political Thought|volume=2-3|issue=6}} Estimate of people with Rusyn ancestry.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pannonian Rusyns]], [[Lemkos]], [[Hutsuls]], [[Boykos]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Saho people|Saho]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Saho language|Saho]]
| [[Eritrea]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saho|title=Saho|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Salar people|Salar]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Salar language|Salar]]
| [[China]] ([[Qinghai]], [[Gansu]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/slr|title=Salar|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 February 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Islam in China|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sama-Bajau]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Sama–Bajaw languages|Sama–Bajaw]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] ([[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Brunei]])&lt;ref name="nomadic" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.5–1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sama-people|title=Sama|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sama language|Sama]] (including [[Banguingui people|Banguingui]]), [[Bajaw language|Bajaw]], [[Abaknon language|Abaknon]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sambal people|Sambal]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Sambalic languages|Sambalic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Zambales]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov.ph/content/zambales-dependency-ratio-down-five-persons-results-2000-census-population-and-housing-nso|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130619230245/http://www.census.gov.ph/content/zambales-dependency-ratio-down-five-persons-results-2000-census-population-and-housing-nso|url-status=dead|title=Zambales: Dependency Ratio Down by Five Persons (Results from the 200…|date=19 June 2013|archivedate=19 June 2013}} Sambal population within Zambales.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bolinao language|Bolinao]], [[Botolan language|Botolan]] (including [[Banguingui people|Banguingui]])
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sámi people|Sámi]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Sami languages|Sami]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sápmi]] ([[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Russia]]) 
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Sami people|title=Sami in Sweden|url=https://sweden.se/society/sami-in-sweden/|website=sweden.se|date=14 December 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Inari Sami people|Inari Sami]], [[Kildin Sami]], [[Lule Sami]], [[Northern Sami]], [[Pite Sami]], [[Skolts|Skolt Sami]], [[Southern Sami]], [[Ter Sami]], [[Ume Sami]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Samoans]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Samoan language|Samoan]] 
| [[Samoan Islands]] ([[Samoa]], [[American Samoa]])
| 0.6 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Demographics of American Samoa|American Samoans]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Sangirese people|Sangirese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Sangirese language|Sangirese]]
| [[Sangihe Islands]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute]]|title=Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape|year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Santal people|Santal]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Munda languages|Munda]] → [[Santali language|Santali]]
| [[India]] ([[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 6.6 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sara people|Sara]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] → [[Sara languages|Sara]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]] 
| 5.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|cd|Chad}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ct|Central African Republic}} Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population. Sara residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ngambay language|Ngambay]], [[Doba language|Doba]], [[Laka language|Laka]], [[Kabba language|Kabba]], [[Sar language|Sar]], [[Mbay language|Mbay]], [[Ngam language|Ngam]], [[Dagba language|Dagba]], [[Gulay language|Gulay]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Sardinian people|Sardinians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]
| [[Sardinia]] ([[Italy]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/srd|title=Sardinian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 January 2019}} Population total of all languages of the Sardinian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sasak people|Sasak]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sasak language|Sasak]]
| [[Lombok]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 3.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Savu people|Savu]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]] → [[Sumba languages|Sumba]] → [[Hawu language|Hawu]]
| [[Savu]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hvn|title=Hawu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=19 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Scottish people|Scots]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Scots]],  [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Scottish Gaelic]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note" /&gt;
| [[Scotland]] ([[United Kingdom]])
| 40 million&lt;ref name="ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk"/&gt;
| [[Ulster Scots people|Ulster Scots]], [[Orcadians]], [[Shetlanders]], [[Scottish Highlands|Highlanders]], [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlanders]], along with [[Scottish diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Scottish Americans|United States]] (including [[Scotch-Irish Americans]]), [[Scottish Canadians|Canada]], [[Scottish Australians|Australia]], [[Scottish Argentine|Argentina]], and the [[White Bahamian|Bahamas]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Church of Scotland|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Senufo people|Senufo]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Senufo languages|Senufo]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mali]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Burkina Faso]]
| 3 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia of African Peoples"&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Diagram Group|title=Encyclopedia of African Peoples|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|location=San Francisco, CA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJQuAgAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|isbn=9781135963415|ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nafana people|Nafana]], [[Minyanka language|Minyanka]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Serbs]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Serbian language|Serbian]] 
| [[Serbia]], [[Republika Srpska]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
| 11.5–12.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/planeta.301.html:489936-Svaki-drugi-Srbin-zivi-izvan-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018231514/http://rs.one.un.org/organizations/12/Serbian%20Diaspora%20and%20Youth,%20June%202011.pdf|title=Svaki drugi Srbin živi izvan Srbije|date=May 2014|publisher=Novosti|page=5|archive-date=5 June 2019|url-status=dead|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605120034/http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/planeta.301.html:489936-Svaki-drugi-Srbin-zivi-izvan-url%3Dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018231514/http://rs.one.un.org/organizations/12/Serbian%2520Diaspora%2520and%2520Youth,%2520June%25202011.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|year=2013|title=Serbs around the World by region|url=http://www.serbianunity.com/serbianunitycongress/pdf/world_of_serbs/Serbs_Around_the_World_by_Region.pdf|url-status=dead|publisher=Serbian Unity Congress|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205032421/http://www.serbianunity.com/serbianunitycongress/pdf/world_of_serbs/Serbs_Around_the_World_by_Region.pdf|archivedate=5 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kosovo Serbs]], [[Triestine Serbs]], along with [[Serbian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Serbs of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Serbs in Germany|Germany]], [[Serbs in Austria|Austria]], [[Serbs in France|France]], and [[Swedish Serbs|Sweden]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Serer people|Serer]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Serer language|Serer]]
| [[Senegal]]
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Serer|title=Serer|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Serer-Laalaa|Laalaa]], [[Serer-Ndut people|Ndut]], [[Niominka people|Niominka]], [[Serer-Noon]], [[Palor people|Palor]], [[Saafi people|Saafi]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Shan people|Shan]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Shan language|Shan]]
| [[Shan State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 5 million&lt;ref name="Burma"/&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Sharchops]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]
| [[Bhutan]] ([[Lhuntse District|Lhuntse]], [[Mongar District|Mongar]], [[Pemagatshel District|Pemagatshel]], [[Samdrup Jongkhar District|Samdrup Jongkhar]], [[Trashigang District|Trashigang]], and [[Trashiyangtse District|Trashiyangtse]] Districts)
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Sherbro people|Sherbro]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Mel languages|Mel]] → [[Sherbro language|Sherbro]]
| [[Sherbro Island]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]]
| [[South Sudan]]
| 1.5 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Gule tribe|Gule]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Shona people|Shona]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]→ [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Shona language|Shona]]
| [[Mashonaland]] ([[Zimbabwe]])
| 7.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sna|title=Shona|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 December 2018}} Total first-language Shona users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Manyika dialect|Manyika]], [[Ndau people|Ndau]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Sibe people|Sibe]]
| [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] → [[Xibe language|Xibe]]&lt;ref name="Tungusic" group="note"/&gt;
| [[China]] ([[Liaoning]], [[Jilin]], [[Xinjiang]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sjo|title=Xibe|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 January 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Shamanism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Sidama people|Sidama]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Sidamo language|Sidaama]]
| [[Sidama Zone|Sidamia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 7.8 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Siddi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Swahili language|Swahili]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Siddi now speak the dominant language of their region.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pakistan]] ([[Baluchistan]], [[Sindh]]), [[India]] ([[Karnataka]], [[Gujarat]], [[Hyderabad]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Sika people|Sika]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Flores–Lembata languages|Flores–Lembata]] → [[Sika language|Sika]]
| [[Sikka Regency]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sikanese|title=Sikanese|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Silesians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Silesian language|Silesian]] 
| [[Silesia]] ([[Poland]]), [[Czech Silesia]] ([[Czech Republic]])
| 2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} 
| [[Cieszyn Vlachs]], [[Silesian Gorals]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Silt'e people|Silt'e]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]  → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Gurage languages|Gurage]] → [[Silt'e language|Silt'e]]
| [[Silt'e Zone|Siltia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Sindhis]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
| [[Sindh]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 26 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/snd|title=Sindhi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=31 March 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Jat people|Jat]], [[Memon people|Memon]], [[Arain]], [[Sindhis in India|Indian Sindhis]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Hanafi|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]
| [[Sri Lanka]] 
| 13.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sinhalese|title=Sinhalese|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Dewa (people)|Dewa]], [[British Sri Lankans]], [[Burgher people|Burghers]] (including [[Portuguese Burghers]] and [[Dutch Burghers]])
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Sioux]] 
| [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] → [[Sioux language|Sioux]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to a history of [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|forced assimilation]] by the American government, the majority can only speak [[American English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Republic of Lakotah proposal|Lakotah]] ([[United States]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
| [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Dakota people|Dakota]], [[Nakota]] (including [[Nakoda (Stoney)|Nakoda]] and [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]])
| [[Native American religion]]
|-
| [[Slovaks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| [[Slovakia]] 
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.sme.sk/c/2422124/Ako-ziju-Slovaci-za-hranicami-Slovensko-mam-rad-ale-mojim-domovom-uz-nie-je.html|title=Ako žijú Slováci za hranicami? Slovensko mám rád, ale mojím domovom už nie je.|trans-title=How do Slovaks live abroad? I like Slovakia but it is no longer my home.|website=Sme.sk|accessdate=2 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Slovak diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Slovaks in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], [[Slovaks in Serbia|Serbia]], [[Slovaks in Hungary|Hungary]], [[Slovak Americans|United States]] and [[Slovak Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Slovenes]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
| [[Slovenia]] 
| 2.5 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Carinthian Slovenes]], [[Slovene minority in Italy|Italy Slovenes]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Soga people|Soga]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Soga language|Soga]] 
| [[Busoga]] ([[Uganda]])
| 2.1 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Christianity]], [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Somalis]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Somali language|Somali]] 
| [[Greater Somalia]] ([[Somalia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Kenya]])
| 16.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/som|title=Somali|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total first-language Somali users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Hawiye]], [[Darod]] (including [[Majeerteen]]), [[Isaaq]], [[Dir (clan)|Dir]], [[Rahanweyn]], [[Madhiban]], [[Yibir]], [[Ajuran (clan)|Ajuran]] along with [[Somali diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Somali Americans|United States]], the [[Somalis in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Somalis in Sweden|Sweden]], and [[Somali Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shafi‘i|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Songhai people|Songhai]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Songhay languages|Songhai]]
| [[Mali]], [[Niger]]
| 4.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ml|Mali}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ng|Niger}} Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population. Songhai residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Zarma people|Zarma]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Soninke people|Soninke]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Soninke language|Soninke]] 
| [[Mali]] 
| 2.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/snk|title=Soninke|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total Soninke users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Haratin]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Maliki|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Basotho|Sotho]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Sotho–Tswana languages|Sotho–Tswana]] → [[Sotho language|Sotho]]
| [[Free State]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Lesotho]] 
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sot|title=Sotho, Southern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 December 2018}} Total first-language Southern Sotho users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
|[[Spaniards]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| [[Spain]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Between [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|1492]] and [[Spanish American wars of independence|1833]], the Spaniards [[Spanish Empire|controlled]] most of the [[Americas]], with Mestizo communities forming in areas such as what is now Mexico, Argentina, and Colombia. Today, the majority of the [[Hispanophone|Hispanosphere]] is outside of Spain.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 47 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-business/european-business/spains-population-falls-for-first-time-since-1940s-as-immigrants-flee-crisis/article11450976/ |title=Spain’s population falls for first time since 1940s as immigrants flee crisis |date=22 April 2013 |location=Toronto |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513223727/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-business/european-business/spains-population-falls-for-first-time-since-1940s-as-immigrants-flee-crisis/article11450976/ |archivedate=13 May 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; in Spain.
| [[Castilians]], [[Andalusians]], [[Asturians]] (including [[Vaqueiros de alzada]]), [[Leonese people|Leonese]], [[Cantabrian people|Cantabrians]], [[Aragonese people|Aragonese]], [[Extremadurans]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Canary Islanders]] (including [[Isleño]]s), [[Criollo people|Criollos]], along with [[Spanish diaspora|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Hispanos]] (including [[Californio]]s, [[Tejano]]s, and [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Neomexicanos]]), [[Mexicans]], [[Guatemalans]] (including [[Hispanic Belizean]]s), [[Salvadorans]], [[Hondurans]], [[Nicaraguans]], [[Costa Ricans]], [[Panamanians]], [[Colombians]], [[Venezuelans]], [[Ecuadorians]], [[Peruvians]], [[Bolivians]], [[Demographics of Paraguay|Paraguayans]], [[Chileans]], [[Argentines]], [[Uruguayans]], [[Cubans]], [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominicans]], [[Zamboangueño people|Zamboangueños]], [[Puerto Ricans]], [[Fernandino peoples|Fernandinos]], and [[Spanish Filipino]]s
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sui people|Sui]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]] → [[Sui language|Sui]]
| [[Sandu Shui Autonomous County]] ([[China]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-shui.htm|title=The Shui ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=25 February 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Sumba people|Sumba]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]] → [[Sumba languages|Sumba]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sumba]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/akg|title=Anakalangu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xbr|title=Kambera|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kod|title=Kodi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lmy|title=Lamboya|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lur|title=Laura|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mvd|title=Mamboru|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wnk|title=Wanukaka|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wew|title=Wejewa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} Figure taken by combining the Anakalangu, Kambera, Kodi, Lamboya, Laura, Mamboru, and Wejewa populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anakalangu language|Anakalangu]], [[Kambera language|East Sumbanese]], [[Kodi language|Kodi]], [[Lamboya language|Lamboya]], [[Wejewa language|West Sumbanese]], [[Mamboru language|Mamboru]], [[Wanukaka language|Wanukaka]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
| [[Java (island)|Java]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 36.7 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Bantenese people|Bantenese]], [[Baduy people|Baduy]], [[Cirebonese people|Cirebonese]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sukuma people|Sukuma]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Sukuma language|Sukuma]] 
| [[Tanzania]]
| 9.6 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sumbawa people|Sumbawa]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumbawa language|Sumbawa]]
| [[Sumbawa]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Surma people|Surma]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Surmic languages|Surmic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ethiopia]], [[South Sudan]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| [[Mekan people|Me'en]], [[Mursi people|Mursi]], [[Kichepo people|Kichepo]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Susu people|Susu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Susu language|Susu]]
| [[Guinea]], [[Kambia District|Kambia]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
| 2.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gv|Guinea}} Guinean population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Swahili people|Swahili]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
| [[Swahili coast]] ([[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Mozambique]], [[Comoros]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Swahili.aspx#1|title=Swahili facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Swahili|work=[[Encyclopedia.com]]|access-date=11 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Shirazi people|Shirazi]] (including [[Zanzibar]]is, [[Demographics of the Comoros|Comorians]] and [[Mayotte|Maore]])
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Swazi people|Swazi]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Swazi language|Swazi]] 
| [[Mpumalanga]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Eswatini]] 
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Swazi-people|title=Swazi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[African Zionism]]
|-
| [[Swedes]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Swedish language|Swedish]] 
| [[Sweden]] 
| 7.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.scb.se/sv_/Hitta-statistik/Statistik-efter-amne/Befolkning/Befolkningens-sammansattning/Befolkningsstatistik/25788/25795/Helarsstatistik---Riket/26040/|title=Befolkningsstatistik i sammandrag 1960-2015|date=27 March 2016|accessdate=20 August 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327122123/http://www.scb.se/sv_/Hitta-statistik/Statistik-efter-amne/Befolkning/Befolkningens-sammansattning/Befolkningsstatistik/25788/25795/Helarsstatistik---Riket/26040/|archivedate=27 March 2016|df=dmy-all}} Swedish population only. Figure taken by subtracting the population with a foreign background with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Scania]]ns, [[Jamtland|Jamtish]], [[Gotland|Gutnish]], along with [[Swedish diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|Finland]] (including [[Åland Islands|Åland Swedes]]), [[Swedish Americans|the United States]], [[Swedish Canadians|Canada]], [[Swedish Argentines|Argentina]] and [[Swedes in the United Kingdom|the United Kingdom]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Sylhetis]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]]
| [[Sylhet Division]] ([[Bangladesh]]), [[Barak Valley]] ([[India]])
| 10.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/syl|title=Sylheti|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=6 December 2018}} Total first-language Sylheti users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tabasaran people|Tabasaran]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Lezgic languages|Lezgic]] → [[Tabasaran language|Tabasaranese]]
| [[Tabasaransky District|Tabasaranstan]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tagalog people|Tagalogs]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
| [[Philippines]]
| 19.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tagalog|title=Tagalog|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Filipino Americans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Tahitians]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Tahiti]] ([[France]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tajiks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] → [[Tajik language|Tajik]]
| [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]]
| 11.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tajik-people|title=Tajik|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 5.2 million in Tajikistan, 1 million in Uzbekistan, and 5 million in Afghanistan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chagatai people|Chagatai]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Talysh people|Talysh]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Talysh language|Talysh]]
| [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tly|title=Talysh|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total Talysh users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Tama people|Tama]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Tama language|Tama]]
| [[Chad]], [[Sudan]]
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tamils]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]] ([[India]]), [[Sri Lanka]] ([[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern]] and [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|Eastern]] Provinces)
| 64 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil|title=Tamil|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Demographics of Tamil Nadu|Indian Tamils]] (including [[Vanniyar]] and [[Adi Dravida]]), [[Sri Lankan Tamils]] (including [[Sri Lankan Moors]]), [[Paravar]], along with [[Tamil diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Tamil Malaysians|Malaysia]], [[Tamil South Africans|South Africa]], [[Tamil Americans|the United States]], [[Singapore Tamils|Singapore]], [[Tamil Canadians|Canada]], the [[British Tamil|United Kingdom]], and [[Tamils in France|France]] (including [[Malbars]]).
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Tarok people|Tarok]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] → [[Tarok language|Tarok]]
| [[Plateau State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yer|title=Tarok|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tatars]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Tatar language|Tatar]] 
| [[Tatarstan]] ([[Russia]])
| 5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tatar|title=Tatar|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Volga Tatars]], [[Crimean Tatars]], [[Lipka Tatars]], [[Siberian Tatars]], [[Mishar Tatars]], [[Finnish Tatars]], [[Tatars of Romania|Dobruja Tatars]], [[Chinese Tatars]], [[Nagaybak]], [[Kryashens]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tausūg people|Tausūg]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Visayan languages|Visayan]] → [[Tausug language|Tausug]]
| [[Sulu Archipelago]] ([[Philippines]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tausug|title=Tausug|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 900,000 in Philippines and 200,000 in Malaysia.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tboli people|Tboli]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Tboli language|Tboli]]
| [[South Cotabato]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.1–0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/210932/the-tboli-a-story-of-massive-land-grabbing-through-the-centuries/&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Anito|Anitism]]
|-
| [[Telugu people|Telugu]] 
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Telugu language|Telugu]] 
| [[India]] ([[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]])
| 81.1 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]], [[Reddy]], [[Velama]], [[Kapu (caste)|Kapu]], [[Raju]], [[Madiga]], [[Mala (caste)|Mala]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Temne people|Temne]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Mel languages|Mel]] → [[Temne language|Temne]]
| [[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern Sierra Leone]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temne|title=Temne|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Thai people|Thais]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Thai language|Thai]]
| [[Thailand]] 
| 31.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tha|title=Thai|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=20 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nod|title=Thai, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=20 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sou|title=Thai, Southern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=20 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining the total number of first-language Thai speakers in all countries with the other two populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Southern Thailand|Southern Thai]], [[Khorat Thai|Khorat]], [[Northern Thai people|Lanna]], [[Tai Lü language|Tai Lü]], [[Thai Americans]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Buddhism in Thailand|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Tibet]] ([[China]]) 
| 5.4&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-tibetan.htm|title=The Tibetan ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;–6.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|given=Nicolas|surname=Tournadre|chapter=The Tibetic languages and their classification|pages=103–129|title=Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area|editor1-given=Thomas|editor1-surname=Owen-Smith|editor2-given=Nathan W.|editor2-surname=Hill|publisher=De Gruyter|year=2014|isbn=978-3-11-031074-0}} ([http://www.nicolas-tournadre.net/wp-content/uploads/multimedia/2014-The_Tibetic_languages.pdf preprint])&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Amdo]]lese (including [[Golok people|Golok]] and [[Tebbu people|Tebbu]]), [[Kham]]s, [[Ü-Tsang]] (including [[Ngari Prefecture|Ngari]] and [[Walung people|Walung]]), [[Changpa]], [[Baima people|Baima]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Tigrayans]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]
| [[Eritrean Highlands]] ([[Eritrea]]), [[Tigray Region|Tigrayia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 7.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tir|title=Tigrigna|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=27 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic population of Ethiopia with the Eritrean population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Tigre people|Tigre]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Tigre language|Tigre]]
| [[Eritrea]]
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|er|Eritrea}} Eritrean population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tiv people|Tiv]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Tiv language|Tiv]]
| [[Benue State]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
| 2.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tiv|title=Tiv|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Tiwa language (India)|Tiwa]]&lt;ref name="Assam" group="note"/&gt;
| [[India]] ([[Assam]], [[Meghalaya]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Tlapanec]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Tlapanec language|Tlapanec]]
| [[Guerrero]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Toraja]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Toraja-Sa’dan language|Toraja]]
| [[Tana Toraja Regency|Tana Toraja]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.toraja.go.id/sosial.php|title=Tana Toraja official website|accessdate=2006-10-04|language=Indonesian|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060529201932/http://www.toraja.go.id/sosial.php|archivedate=May 29, 2006|url-status=dead}} Figure taken by combining both local and diaspora populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Toubou people|Toubou]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] → [[Tebu languages|Tebu]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Tibesti Mountains|Toubouland]] ([[Chad]], [[Niger]], [[Sudan]], [[Libya]])
| 2.3 million&lt;ref name="The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary"/&gt;
| [[Daza language|Daza]], [[Teda language|Teda]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Toucouleur people|Toucouleur]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Fula language|Fula]] → [[Pulaar language|Pulaar]]
| [[Futa Tooro]] ([[Senegal]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tripuri people|Tripuri]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Kokborok]]
| [[Tripura]] ([[India]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Jamatia]], [[Murasing]]
| [[Hinduism]] 
|-
| [[Tsonga people|Tsonga]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]]
| [[Mozambique]] ([[Maputo]] City and [[Province|Maputo Province]], [[Gaza Province]]), [[South Africa]] ([[Limpopo]], [[Mpumalanga]])
| 4.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tsonga|title=Tsonga|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Tswana people|Tswana]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Tswana language|Tswana]]
| [[Botswana]], [[North West (South African province)|South Tswanaland]] ([[South Africa]])
| 4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tswana|title=Tswana|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Balete people|Balete]], [[Mangwato tribe|Mangwato]], [[Bangwaketse]], [[Rolong tribe|Rolong]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tujia people|Tujia]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tujia language|Tujia]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to the widespread presence of Chinese, the majority of Tujia only have a passive knowledge of their language.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wuling Mountains]] ([[China]])
| 5.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/data/minorities/Tujia.html|title=The Tujia ethnic minority|website=[[People's Daily]]|accessdate=23 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Nuo folk religion]]
|-
| [[Tupuri people|Tupuri]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Adamawa languages|Adamawa]] → [[Tupuri language|Tupuri]]
| [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North Region]] ([[Cameroon]]), [[Mayo-Kébbi (prefecture)|Mayo-Kébbi]] ([[Chad]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tui|title=Tupuri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}} Total Tupuri users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Turkana people|Turkana]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Turkana language|Turkana]]
| [[Turkana County|Turkanaland]] ([[Kenya]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Turkish people|Turks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| [[Turkey]]
| 79 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tur|title=Turkish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total first-language Turkish users in all countries, including a large number of [[Minorities in Turkey|minorities residing in Turkey]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Turkish Cypriots]], [[Meskhetian Turks]], [[Yörüks]], along with [[Turkish diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Bulgarian Turks|Bulgaria]], [[Turks in Western Thrace|Greece]], [[Turks in Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Turks in Germany|Germany]], [[Turks in France|France]], [[British Turks|the United Kingdom]], [[Turks in the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Turks in Austria|Austria]], [[Turks in Belgium|Belgium]], [[Turks in Sweden|Sweden]], [[Turkish Americans|the United States]], [[Syrian Turkmen|Syria]], and [[Iraqi Turkmen|Iraq]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Turkmens]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] 
| [[Turkmenistan]]
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkmen-people|title=Turkmen|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tutsi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Great Lakes Bantu languages|Great Lakes]] → [[Rwanda-Rundi]]&lt;ref name="Hutu, Tutsi, Twa" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kivu]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Banyamulenge]]
| [[Christianity]], [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tuvans]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian]] → [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]]
| [[Tuva]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Tozhu Tuvans]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Udmurt people|Udmurts]]
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Permic languages|Permic]] → [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]
| [[Udmurtia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Besermyan]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Urhobo people|Urhobos]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Urhobo language|Urhobo]] 
| [[Delta State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ukrainians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| [[Ukraine]]
| 58.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Vic Satzewich|title=The Ukrainian Diaspora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SfWBAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA19|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-43495-4|page=19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Poleshuks]], [[Cossacks]], along with [[Ukrainian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Ukrainian Americans|the United States]], [[Ukrainian Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Ukrainians in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Ukrainians in Germany|Germany]], [[Ukrainians in Canada|Canada]], [[Ukrainians in Italy|Italy]], [[Ukrainian Argentines|Argentina]], the [[Ukrainians in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], and [[Ukrainians of Romania|Romania]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Uyghurs]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Karluk languages|Karluk]] → [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] 
| [[East Turkestan|Uyghuristan]] ([[China]])
| 10.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uighur|title=Uighur|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 10 million in China, and 300,000 in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Uyghurs in Kazakhstan]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Islam in China|Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Uzbeks]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Karluk languages|Karluk]] → [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] 
| [[Uzbekistan]]
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uzbek-people|title=Uzbek|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 16 million in Uzbekistan, 2 million in Afghanistan, 1.38 million in Tajikistan, and 570,000 in Kyrgyzstan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Uzbeks in Russia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Venda people|Venda]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Venda language|Tshivenda]]
| [[Vhembe District Municipality|Vendaland]] ([[South Africa]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ven|title=Venda|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 December 2018}} Total first-language Venda users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]], [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] 
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Vietic languages|Vietic]] → [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] 
| [[Vietnam]]
| 73.6 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
| [[Muong people|Muong]], [[Gin people|Gin]], [[Tay people|Phen]], [[Chut people|Chut]], [[Thổ people|Thổ]], [[Nung people|Nung]], [[Giáy people|Giáy]], along with [[Overseas Vietnamese|significant populations]] in the [[Vietnamese Americans|United States]], [[Vietnamese Cambodians|Cambodia]], [[Vietnamese people in France|France]], [[Vietnamese Australians|Australia]], [[Vietnamese Canadians|Canada]], [[Vietnamese people in Taiwan|Taiwan]], [[Vietnamese people in Japan|Japan]], [[Vietnamese people in Korea|Korea]], [[Vietnamese people in Germany|Germany]] and [[Vietnamese people in Laos|Laos]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Mahayana]]
|-
| [[Visayans]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Visayan languages|Visayan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Visayas]] ([[Philippines]])
| 35.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Visayan|title=Visayan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 16.5 million Cebuano, 6.54 million Hiligaynon, and 4.2 million Waray-Waray.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aklanon people|Aklanon]], [[Butuanon people|Butuanon]], [[Cebuano people|Cebuano]] (including [[Boholano people|Boholano]] and [[Eskaya people|Eskaya]]), [[Caluyanon language|Caluyanon]], [[Capiznon people|Capiznons]], [[Hiligaynon people|Hiligaynon]], [[Karay-a people|Karay-a]], [[Masbateño people|Masbateños]], [[Negrense]], [[Porohanon people|Porohanon]], [[Romblomanon people|Romblomanon]] (including [[Banton, Romblon|Bantoanons]]), [[Waray people|Waray]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Wa people|Wa]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] → [[Wa language|Wa]]
| [[Wa State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 1.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Buddhism]], [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Walloons]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[French language|French]] → [[Walloon language|Walloon]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Prior to the [[State reform in Belgium|mid-twentieth century]], the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of Belgium was French; this, paired with the fact that the Walloons are usually considered to be a French subgroup, have now resulted in the majority of them speaking only standard French.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wallonia]] ([[Belgium]])
| 4.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wln|title=Walloon|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fra|title=French|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining the Walloon population with the total first-language French users in Belgium (this latter number includes non-Walloon French speakers [[Francization of Brussels|residing]] in [[Brussels]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Waxiang people|Waxiang]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Chinese language|Chinese]] → [[Waxiang Chinese]]
| [[Hunan]] ([[China]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wxa|title=Waxianghua|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Chinese folk religion]]
|-
| [[Welayta people|Welayta]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] → [[Wolaytta language|Wolayitta]]
| [[Wolayita Zone|Wolayitia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1.7 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[P'ent'ay|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Welsh people|Welsh]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Welsh language|Welsh]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Wales]] ([[United Kingdom]])
| 16.3 million&lt;ref name="Welsh names"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://gov.wales/docs/caecd/research/061102-welsh-diaspora-analysis-geography-welsh-names-en.pdf|title=The Welsh diaspora : Analysis of the geography of Welsh names|accessdate=26 June 2016|author=Richard Webber|work=Welsh Assembly}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| significant populations in [[Y Wladfa|Argentina]], [[Welsh Americans|the United States]], [[Welsh Canadians|Canada]], and [[Welsh Australians|Australia]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Wolof people|Wolof]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Wolof language|Wolof]]
| [[Senegambia]] ([[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]])
| 5.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|sg|Senegal}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ga|Gambia, The}} Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations. Wolof residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lebu people|Lebu]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Haratin]]s and [[Demographics of Martinique|Martinicans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Puerto Ricans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Mouride|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]
| [[Eastern Cape|Xhosaland]] ([[South Africa]])
| 7.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Xhosa|title=Xhosa|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Yakan people|Yakan]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Sama–Bajaw languages|Sama–Bajaw]] → [[Yakan language|Yakan]]
| [[Basilan]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yakan|title=Yakan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Yakö people|Yakö]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Yakö language|Yakö]]
| [[Yakurr Local Government]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yaz|title=Lokaa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Yakuts]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian]] → [[Yakut language|Yakut]] 
| [[Yakutia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Yao people (East Africa)|Yao]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Yao language|Yao]]
| [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Tanzania]] ([[Ruvuma Region|Ruvuma]] and [[Mtwara Region]]s)
| 2.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yao|title=Yao|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 December 2018}} Total Yao users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Yi people|Yi]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[China]] ([[Yunnan]], [[Sichuan]], [[Guizhou]], [[Guangxi]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 7.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-yi.htm|title=The Yi ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Phù Lá people|Phù Lá]], [[Azha language|Azha]]
| [[Bimoism]]
|-
| [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] 
| [[Yorubaland]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Benin]])
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoruba|title=Yoruba|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ogu people|Egun]], [[Ijesha]], [[Egba people|Egba]], [[Yewa clan|Yewa]], [[Igbomina]], [[Awori tribe|Awori]], [[Akoko]], [[Okun people|Okun]], [[Ana people|Ana]], [[Ekiti people|Ekiti]], [[Ilaje]], [[Oku people (Sierra Leone)|Oku]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] → [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]]
| [[Chad]], [[Sudan]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="John A. Shoup III"/&gt;
|   
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zande people|Zande]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Zande language|Zande]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[South Sudan]]
| 3.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zande|title=Zande|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Barambu language|Barambu]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotecs]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Zapotec languages|Zapotec]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Oaxaca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Ixtlán Zapotec|Ixtlán]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region|Zhuangia]] ([[China]])
| 16.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-zhuang.htm|title=The Zhuang ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Mo (religion)|Moism]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}

{{notelist}}

==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]

==See also==
* [[Uncontacted peoples]]
* [[Ethnic flag]]
* [[List of language families]]
* [[Lists of people by nationality]]
* [[Lists of active separatist movements]]
* [[Race (human categorization)]]
* [[Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world]]
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]</text>
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Acholi people|Acholi]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Acholi language|Acholi]] 
| [[Northern Region, Uganda|Acholiland]] ([[Uganda]], [[South Sudan]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Acholi|title=Acholi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Afemai people|Afemai]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Afenmai language|Afenmai]]
| [[Edo State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.5 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Afar people|Afar]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Afar language|Afar]]
| [[Afar Region|Afaria]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]])
| 2.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aar|title=Afar|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} Figure taken by adding the ethnic populations of Ethiopia and Djibouti with the Eritrean population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Afrikaners]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Dutch language|Dutch]] → [[Afrikaans]]
| [[South Africa]] ([[Northern Cape|Northern]] and [[Western Cape]]), [[Namibia]]
| 3.5 million&lt;ref&gt;''"Afrikaners constitute nearly three million out of approximately 53 million inhabitants of the Republic of South Africa, plus as many as half a million in diaspora."'' [http://www.unpo.org/members/8148 Afrikaner] – Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. Retrieved 24 August 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Boer]]s, [[White Namibians]], [[White people in Botswana|White Botswanans]], [[Coloureds]] (including [[Cape Coloureds]], [[Griqua people|Griqua]], [[Baster]]s, [[Oorlam people|Oorlam]], [[Goffal]])
| [[Christianity]] → [[Calvinism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Agaw people|Agaw]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Agaw languages|Agaw]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"&gt;Language family; with some exceptions, all speakers of the various languages within this family are typically seen as one singular ethnicity.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Horn of Africa]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"&gt;Non-contiguous homeland. Throughout most of their history (if not their entire history), this ethnic group have lived in separate, isolated communities scattered throughout the countries/subdivisions listed.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 1.5 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Bilen people|Bilen]], [[Xamtanga language|Ximre]], [[Awi people|Awi]], [[Qemant people|Qemant]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Ahom people|Ahom]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Ahom language|Ahom]]&lt;ref name="Assam" group="note"&gt;[[People of Assam|Assamese ethnic group]]; the vast majority only speak [[Assamese language|Assamese]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Assam]] ([[India]])
| 1.3–8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aho|title=Ahom|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 January 2019}} Possible number of Assamese speakers claiming to be of Ahom descent.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Aimaq people|Aimaq]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] → [[Aimaq dialect|Aimaq]]
| [[Afghanistan]]
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aiq|title=Aimaq|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=11 December 2018}} Total Aimaq users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aimaq Hazara]], [[Firozkohi]], [[Jamshidi (Aimaq tribe)|Jamshidi]], [[Kipchak (Aimaq tribe)|Kipchak]], [[Timuri]], [[Taymani (Aimaq tribe)|Taymani]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Aja people|Aja]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] → [[Adja language|Adja]]
| [[Benin]], [[Togo]]
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ajg|title=Aja|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=11 December 2018}} Total Adja users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[West African Vodun|Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Adjoukrou people|Adjoukrou]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Adjukru language|Adjukru]]
| [[Dabou]] ([[Ivory Coast]])
| 0.1 million
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Akan people|Akan]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Akan language|Akan]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;As the Akan language has only [[Akan Orthography Committee|recently been standardized]], the majority of them still speak their [[Central Tano languages|local dialects]], which are usually considered by linguists to be separate languages altogether.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] ([[Ghana]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to historical migrations, about half of the Akan population reside in [[Ivory Coast]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|iv|Cote D'Ivoire}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gh|Ghana}} Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations. Akan residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Twi]] (including [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] and [[Akuapem people|Akuapem]]), [[Fante people|Fante]], [[Abbé people|Abbé]], [[Abidji people|Abidji]], [[Ahafo]], [[Ahanta people|Ahanta]], [[Akwamu]], [[Akyem]], [[Anyi people|Anyi]], [[Aowin]], [[Assin]], [[Attie people|Attie]], [[Avatime people|Avatime]], [[Avikam people|Avikam]], [[Baoulé people|Baoulé]], [[Abron tribe|Brong]], [[Chakosi people|Chakosi]], [[Evalue people|Evalue]], [[M'Bato]], [[Nzema people|Nzema]], [[Sefwi people|Sefwi]], [[Tchaman]], [[Wassa]], [[Abure language|Abure]], [[Alladian language|Alladian]], [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaians]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda|Antiguans and Barbudans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]] and [[Curaçao]]ans
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Akha people|Akha]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]] → [[Hani language|Hani]] → [[Akha language|Akha]]
| [[Yunnan]] ([[China]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Some time around 1860s, many Akha have been migrating to Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand. Today, the majority reside outside of China.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ahk|title=Akha|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 January 2019}} Total users of Akha in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Akeu language|Akeu]]
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Albanians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Albanian language|Albanian]] 
| [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[North Macedonia]]
| 4.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sqi|title=Albanian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Albanian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ghegs]], [[Tosks]] (including [[Arbëreshë people|Arbëreshë]] and [[Arvanites]]), [[Kosovo Albanians|Kosovars]], [[Cham Albanians]], [[Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian Albanians]], along with [[Albanian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Albanians in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Albanians in Germany|Germany]], [[Albanians in Switzerland|Switzerland]] and the [[Albanian Americans|United States]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Alur people|Alur]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Alur language|Alur]]
| [[West Nile sub-region]] ([[Uganda]]), [[Ituri Province|Ituri]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 1.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/alz|title=Alur|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 April 2019}} Total Alur users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ambonese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Ambonese Malay]]
| [[Ambon Island]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abs|title=Malay, Ambonese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 February 2019}} Total first-language Ambonese Malay users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Calvinism|Protestantism]] 
|-
| [[Ambundu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kimbundu]]
| [[Angola]]
| 2.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mbundu|title=Mbundu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Angolar Creole|Angolares]] and [[Curaçao]]ans
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Amhara people|Amhara]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Amharic]] 
| [[Amhara Region|Amharia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 19.9 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"&gt;[http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf "Census 2007"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214221803/http://www.csa.gov.et/pdf/Cen2007_firstdraft.pdf|date=February 14, 2012}}. Ethiopian population only. Figures taken from Urban + Rural population in Table 5. The Surma population is combined with the Me’enite and the Mursi populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
|  
| [[Christianity]] → [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Amis people|Amis]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Formosan languages|Formosan]] → [[Amis language|Amis]]
| [[Taiwan]] ([[Taitung County|Taitung]] and [[Hualien County|Hualien]] Counties)
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://focustaiwan.tw/news/asoc/201502150011.aspx|title=Amis remains Taiwan's biggest aboriginal tribe at 37.1% of total|first1=Hsieh|last1=Chia-chen|first2=Jeffrey|last2=Wu|date=15 February 2015|website=FocusTaiwan.tw|publisher=The Central News Agency|accessdate= 30 April 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|  
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Anaang people|Anaang]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ibibio-Efik languages|Ibibio-Efik]] → [[Anaang language|Anaang]]
| [[Akwa Ibom State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 2.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/anw|title=Anaang|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|  
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Anuak people|Anuak]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Anuak language|Anuak]]
| [[Anuak Zone|Anuakia]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[Boma State|Boma]] ([[South Sudan]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anywa|title=Anywa|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Apache]]
| [[Dené–Yeniseian languages|Dené–Yeniseian]] → [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] → [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Apachean]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;With the exception of Navajo, all Apachean speakers are seen as one ethnicity. However, due to a history of [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|forced assimilation]] by the American government, the majority can only speak [[American English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Apacheria]] ([[United States]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"&gt;{{cite web|title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf|website=census.gov|accessdate=7 March 2017}} American population only. Figure taken using the American Indian and Alaska Native tribal grouping alone population from Table 7. The Muscogee figure is taken by combining the Creek and Seminole population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chiricahua]], [[Jicarilla Apache|Jicarilla]], [[Lipan Apache people|Lipan]], [[Mescalero]], [[Salinero Apaches|Salinero]], [[Plains Apache]], [[Western Apache people|Western Apache]]
| [[Native American religion]] → [[Native American Church]]
|-
| [[Arabs]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Arabic]]
| [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]] ([[Yemen]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Between [[Rashidun Caliphate|632]] and [[Anarchy at Samarra|861]], the Arabs [[Caliphate|controlled]] most of [[West Asia]] and [[North Africa]], with Bedouin tribes forming in what is now Algeria, Sudan, and Iraq. Today, the majority of the [[Arab world]] is outside of Arabia.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 450 million&lt;ref&gt;Margaret Kleffner Nydell [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC&amp;printsec Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times], Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bedouin]]s, [[Druze]], [[Shirazi people|Shirazis]] (including [[Zanzibar]]is, [[Demographics of the Comoros|Comorians]] and [[Mayotte|Maores]]), [[Baggara]], [[Arab-Berber]]s (including [[Demographics of Algeria|Algerians]], [[Demographics of Libya|Libyans]], [[Demographics of Mauritania|Mauritanians]], [[Moroccans]], [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] and [[Tunisian people|Tunisians]]), [[Bahrani people|Bahrainis]], [[Sudanese Arabs|Sudanese]], [[Egyptians]],  [[Iraqis]] (including [[Marsh Arabs]]), [[Demographics of Jordan|Jordanians]], [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] (including [[Maronites]]), [[Demographics of Kuwait|Kuwaitis]], [[Omanis]] (including [[Dhofar Governorate|Dhofaris]]), [[Demographics of Qatar|Qataris]], [[Saudis]] (including [[Rashaida people|Rashaida]], [[Hejaz]]is, and [[Najd]]is), [[Syrians]] (including [[Alawites]]), [[Palestinians]], [[Emiratis]], [[Demographics of Yemen|Yemenis]] (including [[Hadhrami people|Hadhrami]], [[Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic|Ta'izzis-Adenis]], [[Al-Akhdam|Akhdam]], [[Sanʽani Arabic|Sanʽani]], and [[Tihamah|Tihami]]), along with [[Arab diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Arab Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Arab Indonesians|Indonesia]], [[Iranian Arabs|Iran]], [[Arabs in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Arabs in Pakistan|Pakistan]] (including [[Mugheri]]), [[Arab Venezuelans|Venezuela]], [[History of Arabs in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], and [[Arab Americans|the United States]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Argobba people|Argobba]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Argobba language|Argobba]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Argobba have typically been a merchant community and usually trades with other ethnic groups; recently, these factors have resulted in the majority only speaking Amharic or Oromo.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ethiopia]] ([[Afar Region|Afar]], [[Harari Region|Harari]], [[Amhara Region|Amhara]], and [[Oromia Region|Oromia]] Regions)&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Armenians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Armenian language|Armenian]] 
| [[Greater Armenia]] ([[Armenia]], [[Republic of Artsakh]], [[Turkey]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;During the [[Armenian Genocide]] that occurred in the Turkish part of Greater Armenia (usually called [[Western Armenia]]), many Armenians fled to Russia, France, and the United States. Today, the majority reside outside of Greater Armenia, and Western Armenia no longer has an openly Armenian population (the Hemshin largely avoid identifying themselves as being Armenian, while the vast majority of people that are openly Armenian in Turkey reside in [[Istanbul]], which is not a part of Western Armenia).&lt;/ref&gt;
| 6&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Dennis J.D. Sandole|title=Peace and Security in the Postmodern World: The OSCE and Conflict Resolution|date=24 January 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134145713|page=182|quote=The nearly 3 million Armenians in Armenia (and 3–4 million in the Armenian Diaspora worldwide) 'perceive' the nearly 8 million Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan as 'Turks.'}}&lt;/ref&gt;–8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Von Voss|first=Huberta|title=Portraits of Hope: Armenians in the Contemporary World|year=2007|publisher=Berghahn Books|location=New York|isbn=9781845452575|page=xxv|quote=...there are some 8 million Armenians in the world... }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Armenians in Turkey|Turkish Armenians]] (including [[Armenians in Istanbul]], [[Hemshin peoples|Hemshin]] and [[Hidden Armenians]]), [[Cherkesogai]], [[Armeno-Tats]], [[Hayhurum]] [[Karabakh dialect|Karabakhis]], along with [[Armenian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Armenians in Russia|Russia]], the [[Armenian Americans|United States]], [[Armenians in France|France]], [[Armenians in Georgia|Georgia]] (including the [[Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti|Javakheti Armenians]]), [[Armenians in Lebanon|Lebanon]], and [[Armenians in Germany|Germany]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Aromanians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] 
| [[Balkans]] ([[Greece]], [[Albania]], [[North Macedonia]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Puig|first=Lluis Maria de|title=Report: Aromanians|publisher=Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|date=17 January 1997|id=Doc. 7728|url=https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H-Xref-ViewHTML.asp?FileID=7661&amp;lang=en}} Aromanian speaking population. The idea that the Aromanians are a separate ethnicity is a minority opinion within the Aromanian community; they are much more likely to either see themselves as being a Romanian subgroup or belonging to the same ethnicity as the majority ethnic group of their residing country.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[List of Aromanian settlements|Significant populations]] in [[Aromanians of Greece|Greece]], [[Aromanians in Albania|Albania]], and [[Aromanians in the Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Neo-Aramaic languages|Neo-Aramaic]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The [[Aramaic language]] morphed into the Neo-Aramaic languages around 1200 AD. Whether the majority of the Assyrians are still speaking these languages is unclear, however.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Assyrian homeland|Assyria]] ([[Iraq]], [[Iran]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Modern Assyria have seen long periods of violence throughout the region, some of which (such as the [[Assyrian genocide]] and the [[Persecution of Christians by ISIL]]) have been directed against the Assyrians themselves. This has caused many to flee to places such as the United States and Sweden; it is believed that the majority now reside outside of the [[Middle East]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 2&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/Roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat16.pdf|author=Ronald Roberson|title=The Eastern Catholic Churches 2016|publisher=Catholic Near East Welfare Association|accessdate=29 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020094357/http://www.cnewa.org/source-images/roberson-eastcath-statistics/eastcatholic-stat16.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=dead}} Information sourced from ''Annuario Pontificio'' 2016 edition&lt;/ref&gt;–4 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://unpo.org/members/7859 "Assyria"]. ''Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization''. unpo.org.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chaldean Catholics|Chaldeans]], [[Tyari]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Iraqis]] (including and [[Marsh Arabs]]), [[Syrians]] (including [[Alawites]]), [[Antiochian Greek Christians|Rûm]], along with [[Assyrian–Chaldean–Syriac diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Assyrian Americans|United States]], [[Assyrians/Syriacs in Sweden|Sweden]], and [[Arameans in Israel|Israel]]
| [[Syriac Christianity|Christianity]]
|-
| [[Atoni]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Timoric languages|Timoric]] → [[Uab Meto language|Uab Meto]]
| [[West Timor]] ([[Indonesia]]), [[Oecusse]] ([[East Timor]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Atoni|title=Atoni|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Amarasi]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Atyap people|Atyap]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] → [[Tyap language|Atyap]]
| [[Kaduna State]] ([[South Sudan]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Austrians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[German language|German]] → [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]]
| [[Austria]]
| 8.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bar|title=Bavarian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=29 January 2019}} Figure taken by adding the Austrian and Italian population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[South Tyrol]]eans, along with significant populations in [[Austrian Americans|United States]], [[Austrian Canadians|Canada]], and [[Austrian Australians|Australia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Avars (Caucasus)|Avars]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Avar language|Avar]]
| [[Avaristan]] ([[Russia]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref name="Russia"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/tab5.xls|title=Russian Census 2010: Population by ethnicity|accessdate=2013-04-16|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424000000/http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/tab5.xls|archivedate=2012-04-24}} Russian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Awadhi people|Awadhis]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] → [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]
| [[Awadh]] ([[India]])
| 3.9 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"&gt;[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf 2011 Indian census], ''Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues.'' Indian population only. Figure taken using the language grouping population or the specific mother tongue population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Barhai]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Aymara people|Aymara]]
| [[Aymaran languages|Aymaran]] → [[Aymara language|Aymara]]
| [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Chile]] 
| 3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aymara|title=Aymara|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Bolivians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Azerbaijanis]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]
| [[Azerbaijan]], [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] ([[Iran]])
| 30–35 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=YJwsAQAAIAAJ&amp;dq=30+million+South+Azerbaijan&amp;q=30-35|title=The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East|author=Sela, Avraham|publisher=Continuum|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8264-1413-7|page=197|quote=30–35 million|author-link=Avraham Sela}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ayrums]], [[Bayat (tribe)|Bayat]], [[Karadaghis]], [[Qajars (tribe)|Qajars]], [[Küresünni]], [[Qarapapaqs]], [[Shahsevan]], [[Terekeme people|Terekeme]], [[Yeraz]], [[Afshar people|Afshar]], [[Iranian Azerbaijanis]], along with [[Azerbaijani diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Azerbaijanis in Georgia|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijanis in Russia|Russia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Bahnar people|Bahnar]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Bahnar language|Bahnar]]
| [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] ([[Vietnam]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"&gt;{{cite web|title=The 2009 Vietnam Population and Housing Census: Completed Results|url=http://www.gso.gov.vn/Modules/Doc_Download.aspx?DocID=12724|publisher=General Statistics Office of Vietnam: Central Population and Housing Census Steering Committee|date=June 2010|accessdate=26 November 2013|page=134|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018040824/http://www.gso.gov.vn/Modules/Doc_Download.aspx?DocID=12724|archivedate=18 October 2013}} Vietnamese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Bai people|Bai]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]→ [[Bai language|Bai]]
| [[Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture]] ([[China]])
| 1.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-bai.htm|title=The Bai ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=30 January 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Bakossi people|Bakossi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Manenguba language|Akoose]]
| [[Bakossi Mountains]] ([[Cameroon]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://allbakossiconference.yolasite.com/about-us.php|title=BAKOSSI: INFORMATION NOTE|author=S. N. Ejedepang-Koge|publisher=THE ALL BAKOSSI CONFERENCE|accessdate=2011-02-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]

|-
| [[Balanta people|Balanta]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Balanta language|Balanta]] 
| [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]]
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ble|title=Balanta-Kentohe|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 January 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bjt|title=Balanta-Ganja|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 January 2018}} Figure taken by combining the total users of Balanta-Kentohe in all countries with the Balanta-Ganja population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Balinese people|Balinese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Balinese language|Balinese]]
| [[Bali]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 3.9 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Bali Aga]]
| [[Balinese Hinduism|Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Balkars]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Karachay-Balkar language|Balkar]]
| [[Kabardino-Balkaria]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Baloch people|Balochs]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Balochi language|Balochi]]
| [[Balochistan]] ([[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]])
| 10 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bal|title=Baluchi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=8 June 2019}} Population total of all languages of the Baluchi [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Askani (tribe)|Askani]], [[Bajkani]], [[Bangulzai tribe|Bangulzai]], [[Barazani]], [[Bhurgari]], [[Bugti]], [[Buledi]], [[Chandio]], [[Darzada]], [[Dehwar]], [[Dodai tribe|Dodai]], [[Dombki]], [[Gabol]], [[Ghazini]], [[Jamali (tribe)|Jamali]], [[Jatoi (tribe)|Jatoi]], [[Kalmati]], [[Khetran]], [[Kunara]], [[Langhani]], [[Lango tribe|Lango]], [[Lashkrani]], [[Loharani]], [[Lund (Baloch tribe)|Lund]], [[Marri (tribe)|Marri]], [[Mazari tribe|Mazari]], [[Mengal]], [[Mirali (Baloch tribe)|Mirali]], [[Mugheri]], [[Muhammad Shahi]], [[Mullazai tribe|Mullazai]], [[Nothazai]], [[Pitafi]], [[Qaisrani]], [[Rind (Baloch tribe)|Rind]], [[Sadozai (Baloch tribe)|Sadozai]], [[Sethwi]], [[Shaikhzadah]], [[Talpur]], [[Tauki]], [[Umrani]], [[Yarahmadzai tribe|Yarahmadzai]], [[Zardari tribe|Zardari]], [[Makrani caste|Makrani]], along with [[Baloch diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Baloch people in the United Arab Emirates|the United Arab Emirates]] (including [[Al Balushi]]) and [[Turkmenistan]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Balti people|Balti]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] → [[Balti language|Balti]]
| [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bft|title=Balti|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Balti users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Bamar people|Bamars]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Burmese language|Burmese]]
| [[Myanmar]]
| 32.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mya|title=Burmese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 December 2018}} Total first-language Burmese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Taungyo]], [[Yaw people|Yaw]], [[Intha people|Intha]], [[Danu people|Danu]], [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Bambara people|Bambara]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Manding languages|Manding]] → [[Bambara language|Bambara]] 
| [[Mali]]
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bam|title=Bamanankan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 December 2018}} Total first-language Bamanankan users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Haratin]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bamileke people|Bamileke]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Grassfields languages|Grassfields]] → [[Bamileke languages|Bamileke]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Cameroon]] ([[West Region (Cameroon)|West]] and [[Northwest Region (Cameroon)|Northwest]] Regions)
| 2.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bamileke|title=Bamileke|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mengaka language|Mengaka]], [[Ngiemboon language|Ngiemboon]], [[Ngombale language|Ngombale]], [[Ngomba language|Ngomba]], [[Ngwe language|Ngwe]], [[Yemba language|Yemba]], [[Fe'fe' language|Fe'fe']], [[Ghomala' language|Ghomala']], [[Kwa’ language|Kwa’]], [[Nda’nda’ language|Nda’nda’]], [[Medumba language|Medumba]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bamum people|Bamum]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Grassfields languages|Grassfields]] → [[Bamum language|Bamum]]
| [[West Region (Cameroon)|West Region]] ([[Cameroon]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bax|title=Bamun|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]

|-
| [[Banda people|Banda]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Banda languages|Banda]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Central African Republic]], [[South Sudan]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Kevin Shillington|title=Encyclopedia of African History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|pages=231–232}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Central Banda language|Central Banda]], [[South Banda language|South Banda]], [[West Banda language|West Banda]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Banjar people|Banjarese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Banjar language|Banjarese]]
| [[South Kalimantan]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Bari people|Bari]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Bari language|Bari]]
| [[Central Equatoria]] ([[South Sudan]]), [[Uganda]]
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bfa|title=Bari|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/keo|title=Kakwa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mqu|title=Mandari|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total number of first-language Bari users in all countries, the total number of Kakwa users in all countries, and the Mandari population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pojulu people|Pojulu]], [[Kakwa people|Kakwa]], [[Nyangwara people|Nyangwara]], [[Mandari people|Mandari]], [[Kuku people|Kuku]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bariba people|Bariba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Bariba language|Bariba]]
| [[Borgu]] ([[Benin]], [[Nigeria]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref name="Benin"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bn|Benin}} Beninese population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bassa people (Liberia)|Bassa]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kru languages|Kru]] → [[Bassa language|Bassa]]
| [[Grand Bassa County|Bassaland]] ([[Liberia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="CIA World Factbook, Liberia"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|li|Liberia}} Liberian population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Anglicanism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Bashkirs]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]]
| [[Bashkortostan]] ([[Russia]]) 
| 1.6 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
|  
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Basques]]
| [[Basque language|Basque]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to the widespread presence of both Spanish and French, the majority of Basques only have a passive knowledge of their language.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]] ([[Spain]], [[France]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Basque|title=Basque|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 850,000 in Spain, 130,000 in France, and 170,000 possibly living in South America and the United States.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Basque diaspora|Significant populations]] in [[Basque Argentines|Argentina]], [[Basque Chileans|Chile]], [[Basque Colombians|Colombia]], [[Basque Mexicans|Mexico]], [[Basque Venezuelan|Venezuela]], and [[Basque Uruguayans|Uruguay]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Batak]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] → [[Batak languages|Batak]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[North Sumatra]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 8.5 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Angkola people|Angkola]], [[Karo people (Indonesia)|Karo]], [[Mandailing people|Mandailing]], [[Pakpak people|Pakpak]], [[Simalungun people|Simalungun]], [[Toba Batak people|Toba]], [[Alas people|Alas]], [[Kluet people|Kluet]], [[Singkil people|Singkil]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Batak Christian Protestant Church|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Beja people|Beja]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Beja language|Beja]]
| [[Sudan]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]]
| 1.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beja-people|title=Bejah|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bishari tribe|Bishari]], [[Ababda people|Ababda]], [[Hadendoa]], [[Hedareb people|Hedareb]], [[Amarar tribe|Amarar]], [[Beni-Amer people|Beni-Amer]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Belarusians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Unlike the rest of the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], who were able to maintain their native language despite the ''de facto'' [[Russification|Russianization]] during the Soviet era, the Russian language has largely replaced Belarusian in everyday use.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Belarus]]
| 10 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Belarusian diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Belarusian Americans|United States]], [[Belarusians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], and [[Belarusians in Russia|Russia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Bemba people|Bemba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Bemba language|Bemba]]
| [[Zambia]] ([[Northern Province, Zambia|Northern]], [[Luapula Province|Luapula]], and [[Copperbelt Province|Copperbelt]] Provinces), [[Katanga Province]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 5.3 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Bembe people|Bembe]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Bembe language (Ibembe)|Bembe]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Tanzania]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bmb|title=Bembe|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=6 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bengalis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| [[Bengal]] ([[Bangladesh]], [[India]])
| 230 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ben|title=Bengali|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=30 September 2019}} Total first-language Bengali users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bangal]], [[Bhadralok]], [[Ghoti people|Ghoti]], [[Aguri (caste)|Aguri]], [[Bagdi caste|Bagdi]], [[Baidya]], [[Baishya Kapali]], [[Baishya Saha]], [[Barujibi]], [[Bauris]], [[Bengali Brahmins]], [[Chunaru]], [[Doms]], [[Gandhabanik]], [[Suvarna Banik]], [[Hari caste|Haris]], [[Jalia Kaibarta]][[Kansabanik]], [[Karmakar]], [[Mahishya]], [[Mal (caste)|Mal]], [[Bengali Kayastha]], [[Namasudra]], [[Sadgop]], [[Shunri]], [[Yogi Nath]], [[Bangladeshis]], along with [[Bangladeshi diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Bangladeshis in the Middle East|Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates]], [[Bangladeshis in Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[British Bangladeshi|the United Kingdom]], and [[Bangladeshi Americans|the United States]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Berbers]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Berber languages|Berber]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Maghreb]] ([[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia]], [[Libya]])
| 20&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/05/05/north-africa-berbers-get-boost-from-arab-spring/|title=North Africa's Berbers get boost from Arab Spring|publisher=[[Fox News Channel|Fox News]]|date=5 May 2012|accessdate=8 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;–50 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Tej K. Bhatia|author2=William C. Ritchie|title=The Handbook of Bilingualism|date=2006|publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons|isbn=978-0631227359|page=860|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=pNqVaUk4dM0C|accessdate=19 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Central Atlas Tamazight|Brabers]], [[Chaoui people|Chaouis]], [[Kabyle people|Kabyle]], [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawi]], [[Chenouas]], [[Ghomaras]], [[Houara]], [[Jerba people|Jerbis]], [[Matmata Berber|Matmatas]], [[Mozabite people|Mozabite]], [[Nafusi language|Nafusis]], [[Rifian people|Rifian]], [[Sanhaja de Srair language|Sanhaja de Srair]], [[Shilha people|Shilha]], [[Siwi people|Siwi]], [[Tuareg people|Tuaregs]], [[Awjila language|Awjila]], [[Arab-Berber]]s (including [[Demographics of Algeria|Algerians]], [[Demographics of Libya|Libyans]], [[Moroccans]], and [[Tunisian people|Tunisians]]), along with significant populations in [[Berbers in France|France]], [[Berbers in Belgium|Belgium]], and the [[Berbers in the Netherlands|Netherlands]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Berom people|Berom]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] → [[Berom language|Berom]]
| [[Plateau State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bom|title=Berom|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Berta people|Berta]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Berta language|Berta]]
| [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[South Sudan]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wti|title=Berta|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total first-language Berta users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] 
|-
| [[Betawi people|Betawis]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Betawi language|Betawian]]
| [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 6.8 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Beti people|Beti]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Beti language|Beti]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Beti and the Fang form the [[Beti-Pahuin peoples]]. While the term Beti is sometimes used interchangeably to refer to the Beti-Pahuin people, the Beti ethnicity is specifically limited to Ewondo and Eton speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cameroon]]
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"&gt;{{cite book|editor1=[[Kwame Anthony Appiah]]|editor2=[[Henry Louis Gates Jr.]]|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533770-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ewondo language|Ewondo]], [[Eton language|Eton]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bhil people|Bhils]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bhil languages|Bhil]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[India]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Maharastra]])
| 17.1 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://tribal.nic.in/ST/StatisticalProfileofSTs2013.pdf|title=Statistical Profile of Scheduled Tribes in India|publisher=[[Ministry of Tribal Affairs]]|year=2013|location=[[New Delhi]]}} Indian population only. Figures taken either directly from Table 1.23 or by combining related total populations of Table 1.24.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Barda (tribe)|Barda]], [[Bhagalia]], [[Bhilala]], [[Bhil Gametia]], [[Bhil Garasia]], [[Bhil Kataria]], [[Bhil Mama]], [[Bhil Mavchi]], [[Dholi Bhil]], [[Dungri Bhil]], [[Damor]], [[Dungri Garasia]], [[Mewasi Bhil]], [[Nirdhi Bhil]], [[Rawal Bhil]], [[Tadvi Bhil]], [[Vasava]], [[Bhil Meena]], [[Chaudhri]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Bhojpuri people|Bhojpuris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]
| [[Bhojpuri region|Bhojpur]] ([[India]], [[Nepal]])
| 50.6 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Paswan]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Bhumij]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Munda languages|Munda]] → [[Mundari language|Bhumij]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to their [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|historical low status in India]], the majority only speak Bengali.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[India]] ([[West Bengal]], [[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]])
| 0.9 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Sarnaism]]
|-
| [[Bicolano people|Bicolanos]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Bikol languages|Bikol]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Bicol Region|Bicolandia]] ([[Philippines]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bicol-people|title=Bicol|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Central Bikol]], [[Sorsogon|Sorsoganons]], [[Catanduanes|Catandunganons]], [[Rinconada Bikol language|Rinconada]], [[Albay Bikol language|Albayanon]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Bidayuh]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sarawak]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="The Borneo Post"&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/02/08/state-statistics-malays-edge-past-chinese-in-sarawak/|title=State statistics: Malays edge past Chinese in Sarawak|accessdate=15 April 2016|newspaper=[[The Borneo Post]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415063610/http://www.theborneopost.com/2014/02/08/state-statistics-malays-edge-past-chinese-in-sarawak/|archivedate=15 April 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kendayan people|Kendayan]], [[Selako people|Selako]], [[Bakati’ language|Bakati’]], [[Sara Bakati' language|Sara Bakati']], [[Laraʼ language|Laraʼ]], [[Bukar Sadong language|Bukar Sadong]], [[Biatah language|Biatah]], [[Tringgus language|Tringgus]], [[Jagoi language|Jagoi]], [[Jangkang language|Jangkang]], [[Kembayan language|Kembayan]], [[Semandang language|Semandang]], [[Ribun language|Ribun]], [[Nyadu’ language|Nyadu’]], [[Sanggau language|Sanggau]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bilala people|Bilala]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] → [[Naba language|Naba]]
| [[Lake Fitri]] ([[Chad]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mne|title=Naba|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 March 2019}} 137,000 Bilala.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bishnupriya Manipuri people|Bishnupriya Manipuris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bishnupriya Manipuri language|Bishnupriya Manipuri]]
| [[Manipur]] ([[India]]), [[Bangladesh]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bpy|title=Bishnupriya|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 February 2019}} Total Bishnupriya users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Bissa people|Bissa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Bissa language|Bissa]]
| [[Burkina Faso]]
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bib|title=Bisa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Total Bissa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Blaan people|Blaan]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Blaan language|Blaan]]
| [[Soccsksargen]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bpr|title=Blaan, Koronadal|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=2 March 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bps|title=Blaan, Sarangani|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=2 March 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Anito|Anitism]]
|-
| [[Boa people|Boa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Bwa language|Boa]]
| [[Bas-Uele]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bww|title=Bwa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Bodo people|Bodo]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
| [[Bodoland]] ([[India]])
| 1.5 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Mech tribe|Mech]]
| [[Bathouism]] 
|-
| [[Bosniaks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] 
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Sandžak]] ([[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]])
| 2.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bos|title=Bosnian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} Total Bosnian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in [[Bosniaks of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Bosniaks in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Bosnian Austrians|Austria]], [[Bosniaks in Germany|Germany]] and the [[Bosnian Americans|United States]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Bouyei people|Bouyei]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Bouyei language|Bouyei]] 
| [[Guizhou]] ([[China]])
| 3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-bouyei.htm|title=The Bouyei ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=17 February 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Giáy people|Giáy]]
| [[Mo (religion)|Moism]]
|-
| [[Bozo people|Bozo]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Bozo language|Bozo]] 
| [[Mali]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bze|title=Bozo, Jenaama|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 February 2019}} Includes only speakers of Jenaama dialect.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Brahui people|Brahuis]] 
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Brahui language|Brahui]]
| [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Brahui|title=Brahui|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Raisani]], [[Jhalawan]], [[Sarawan]], [[Mengal]] (including [[Zagar Mengal|Zagar]] and [[Zakria Zae Mengal|Zakria Zae]]), [[Sasoli]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Hanafi|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Bretons]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Breton language|Breton]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"&gt;Due to France's [[Language policy in France|long history]] of promoting the French language at the expense of others, the vast majority only speak French.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Brittany]] ([[France]])
| 4.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2119431?sommaire=2119504|title=Populations légales 2013 - Insee|publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques]]|accessdate=31 December 2016}} {{cite web|url=https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2119468?sommaire=2119504|title=Populations légales 2013 - Insee|publisher=[[Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques]]|accessdate=31 December 2016}} Figure taken by combining the legal population of the [[Brittany (administrative region)|administrative region of Brittany]] with the legal population of the [[Loire-Atlantique]] Department in 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Bru people|Bru]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Katuic languages|Katuic]] → [[Bru language|Bru]]
| [[Savannakhet Province]] ([[Laos]]), [[Vietnam]] ([[Quảng Bình Province|Quảng Bình]] and [[Quảng Trị Province|Quảng Trị]] Provinces)
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bru|title=Bru, Eastern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=8 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/brv|title=Bru, Western|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total users of Eastern Bru and Western Bru in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Budu people|Budu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Budu language|Budu]]
| [[Wamba Territory]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Buduma people|Buduma]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Yedina language|Yedina]]
| [[Lake Chad]] ([[Chad]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]])
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Buginese people|Buginese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Buginese language|Buginese]]
| [[South Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 6.4 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bulgarians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] 
| [[Bulgaria]]
| 9–10 million&lt;ref name="Native Peoples of the World"&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vf4TBwAAQBAJ|title=Native Peoples of the World|work=google.bg|isbn=9781317464006|last1=Danver|first1=Steven L.|date=2015-03-10}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pomaks]], along with [[Bulgarian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Bulgarians in Turkey|Turkey]], [[Bessarabian Bulgarians|Ukraine and Moldova]], [[Banat Bulgarians|Romania and Serbia]], [[Bulgarians in Germany|Germany]], [[Bulgarians in Spain|Spain]] and the [[Bulgarian Americans|United States]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Burusho people|Burusho]]
| [[Burushaski]]
| [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bsk|title=Burushaski|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Isma'ilism|Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Butonese people|Butonese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Celebic languages|Celebic]] → [[Muna–Buton languages|Butonese]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Buton]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} 
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Bwa people|Bwa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Bwa languages|Bwa]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mali]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Bwa People|work=Art and Life in Africa Online|publisher=[[University of Iowa]]|date=1998-11-03|url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Bwa.html|accessdate=2008-07-22|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722075626/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/bwa.html|archivedate=2008-07-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Catalans]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Catalan language|Catalan]] 
| [[Catalan Countries]] ([[Spain]], [[France]])
| 8.4 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Valencian people|Valencians]], [[Balearic people|Balearics]], [[Demographics of Andorra|Andorrans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]
| [[Mariana Islands]] ([[United States]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Pacific Islander Americans"&gt;{{cite web|title=The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Population: 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-12.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=US Census Bureau|accessdate=11 August 2017}} American population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Chams]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Cham language|Cham]]
| [[Champa]] ([[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]])
| 0.6–0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cja|title=Cham, Western|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=22 October 2017}} Both figures taken by combining the ethnic population of Cambodia with the Vietnamese population, the former using the 2009 census and the latter using the Bradley estimate. (Both sources include speakers of Eastern Cham).&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Chechens]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Nakh languages|Nakh]] → [[Chechen language|Chechen]]
| [[Chechnya]] ([[Russia]])
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27599836|title=Chechnya 'has no troops in Ukraine'|date=28 May 2014|website=BBC News|via=www.bbc.com|accessdate=17 October 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kists]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Cherokee]]
| [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]] → [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]]&lt;ref name="American Indians" group="note"&gt;Due to the a [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|long history]] of [[forced assimilation]] by the American government, the vast majority only speak [[American English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[United States]] ([[North Carolina]], [[Tennessee]])&lt;ref name="Trial of Tears" group="note"&gt;Following the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]], the Cherokee, the Choctaw, and the Muscogee were all [[Trail of Tears|forced to relocate]] their entire population to [[Oklahoma]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.8 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
| [[Cherokee Nation]], [[Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians|Eastern Band]], [[United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians|United Keetoowah Band]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Chin people|Chin]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]&lt;ref name="Chin–Naga" group="note"&gt;The Kuki-Chin–Naga language grouping (it is unclear whether the Kuki-Chin–Naga form an actual language family) consists of five to eight branches. Except for Karbi and Meitei, the Kuki-Chin–Naga is divided between the Chin and the Naga. The [[Mruic languages|Mruic]] and most of the [[Kuki-Chin languages|Kuki-Chin]] speakers are seen as Chin, while speakers of the remaining Kuki-Chin–Naga branches ([[Ao languages|Ao]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhulic]], and [[Zeme languages|Zeme]]) and the speakers [[Northwestern Kuki-Chin languages|Northwestern Kuki-Chin]] are seen as Naga.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chin State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 10 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zogam.org/zomi-population "The Zomi Population"]&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Thadou people|Thadou]], [[Paite people|Paite]], [[Simte people|Simte]], [[Zou people|Zou]], [[Lamkang language|Lamkang]], [[Kom people (Manipur)|Kom]], [[Lushai]], [[Hmar people|Hmar]], [[Koireng]], [[Mizo people|Mizo]], [[Aimol people|Aimol]], [[Mru people (Awa Khami)|Mru]], [[Mru people (Mrucha)|Mrucha]] (including [[Anu-Hkongso language|Anu-Hkongso]]), [[Bawm people|Bawm]], [[Biate people|Biate]], [[Asho Chin people|Asho]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Choctaw]]
| [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] → [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]&lt;ref name="American Indians" group="note"/&gt;
| [[United States]] ([[Alabama]], [[Florida]], [[Mississippi]], [[Louisiana]])&lt;ref name="Trial of Tears" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
|
| [[Native American religion]]
|-
| [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]]
| [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Zambia]]
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chokwe|title=Chowke|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Chutiya people|Chutiya]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Deori language|Deori]]&lt;ref name="Assam" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Assam]] ([[India]])
| 2.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140405/jsp/northeast/story_18155427.jsp#.VdmeOXDhXJs|title=Chutias to shun Cong|website=www.telegraphindia.com|language=en|access-date=2018-11-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Deori people|Deori]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Chuukese people|Chuukese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian]] → [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]]
| [[Chuuk Lagoon]] ([[Federated States of Micronesia]]) 
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/chk|title=Chuukese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Chuukese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghur languages|Oghur]] → [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]]
| [[Chuvashia]] ([[Russia]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Virjal]], [[Anatri]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Circassians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Circassian languages|Circassian]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Circassia]] ([[Russia]])&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Circassian|title=Circassian|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 165,000 Adyghians, 345,000 Kabardians, 150,000 in Turkey, and 35,000 in Syria.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Adyghe people|Adygeans]], [[Kabardians]], [[Cherkess]], [[Shapsugs]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Chakma people|Chakmas]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Chakma language|Chakma]]
| [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] ([[Bangladesh]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Chakma|title=Chakma|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Chewa people|Chewa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Chewa language|Chewa]]
| [[Malawi]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]]
| 9.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nya|title=Chichewa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=30 December 2018}} Total Chichewa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Copts]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Coptic language|Coptic]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The original [[Egyptian language]], which morphed into the Coptic language around the 1st century AD, died out as a spoken language around the 17th century and is now only [[Liturgical language|used for religious ceremonies]]. Today, the Egyptians, including the Copts, speak [[Egyptian Arabic|Arabic]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Egypt]]
| 15-20 million&lt;ref name="Montreal Gazette"&gt;{{cite news|title=Coptic Orthodox Christmas to be low-key – Tight security: On alert after bombing in Egypt|url=https://montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal+Coptic+Orthodox+Christmas/4054183/story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223234517/http://www.montrealgazette.com/life/Montreal%2BCoptic%2BOrthodox%2BChristmas/4054183/story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 February 2011|accessdate=5 January 2011|newspaper=Montreal Gazette|date=4 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sudan]] and [[Libya]] along with [[Coptic diaspora|significant populations]] in [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Cornish people|Cornish]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Cornish language|Cornish]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note"&gt;Due to a long history of English dominance within Great Britain, the Celtic languages within the islands have seen steady decline in use, with some of them eventually going extinct. Although all of them have since seen major [[Language revitalization|language revival movements]], English continues to be main language for the majority of this group.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cornwall]] ([[United Kingdom]])
| 11 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/cornishcom/transnationalism.htm|title=The Cornish Transnational Communities Project|work=University of Exeter|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120173146/http://projects.exeter.ac.uk/cornishcom/transnationalism.htm|archivedate=20 January 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cornish diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Cornish Americans|United States]] and [[Cornish Australians|Australia]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Corsicans]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Corsican language|Corsican]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Corsica]] ([[France]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cos|title=Corsican|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 January 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Cree]]
| [[Algic languages|Algic]] → [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] → [[Cree language|Cree]]&lt;ref name="First Nation" group="note"&gt;Due to the a [[Canadian Indian residential school system|long history]] of [[forced assimilation]] by the Canadian government, the vast majority can only either speak [[Canadian English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Canada]] ([[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="First Nation Census"&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&amp;Geo1=PR&amp;Code1=01&amp;Data=Count&amp;SearchText=Canada&amp;SearchType=Begins&amp;B1=All&amp;C1=All&amp;SEX_ID=1&amp;AGE_ID=1&amp;RESGEO_ID=1|title=Aboriginal Population Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-11-23}} Canadian population only. Figure taken using total population of Aboriginal ancestry responses.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Innu]], [[Naskapi]], [[Atikamekw]], [[Grand Council of the Crees|James Bay Cree]], [[Moose Cree]], [[Swampy Cree]], [[Woods Cree]], [[Plains Cree]], [[Métis]] (including [[Métis in Canada]]), [[Oji-Cree]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Croats]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Croatian language|Croatian]] 
| [[Croatia]], [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
| 5.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hrv|title=Croatian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=28 March 2019}} Total first-language Croatian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bunjevci]], [[Krashovani]], [[Janjevci]], [[Sokci]], [[Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Croats]], along with [[Croatian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Croats of Italy|Italy]] (including [[Molise Croats]]), [[Burgenland Croats|Austria]], [[Croatian Americans|United States]], [[Croatian Chileans|Chile]], [[Croatian Argentines|Argentina]], [[Croats in Germany|Germany]], [[Croatian Australians|Australia]] and [[Croatian Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Cuyunon people|Cuyunon]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Visayan languages|Visayan]] → [[Cuyonon language|Cuyonon]]
| [[Cuyo Archipelago]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/cyo|title=Cuyonon|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=2 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Czechs]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Czech language|Czech]]
| [[Czech Republic]] 
| 6.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://notes2.czso.cz/cz/sldb2011/cd_sldb2011_11_12/index_html_files/PVCR062.pdf|title=Tab. 6.2 Obyvatelstvo podle národnosti podle krajů: výsledky podle trvalého bydliště|trans-title=Tab. 6.2 Population by nationality by regions: results for permanent residence|language=cs|work=Czech Statistical Office (CZSO)|date=2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116234801/http://notes2.czso.cz/cz/sldb2011/cd_sldb2011_11_12/index_html_files/PVCR062.pdf|archivedate=16 January 2013}} Includes only those residing in the Czech Republic.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bohemian]]s, [[Moravians]], [[Czech Silesia|Silesians]], along with [[Czech diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Czech Americans|United States]] and [[Czech Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"&gt;Largest practiced religion; the majority/plurality of this group are actually [[Irreligion|non-religious]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[Dagaaba people|Dagaaba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Dagaare language|Dagaare]]
| [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] 
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dgi|title=Dagara, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dga|title=Dagaare, Southern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Dagomba people|Dagombas]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Dagbani language|Dagbani]]
| [[Kingdom of Dagbon]] ([[Ghana]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dag|title=Dagbani|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Damara people|Damara]]
| [[Khoe languages|Khoe]] → [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoe]]
| [[Damaraland]] ([[Namibia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Namibia"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|wa|Namibia}} Namibian population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Danes]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Danish language|Danish]] 
| [[Denmark]]
| 5.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dan|title=Danish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=28 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in the [[Danish Americans|United States]], [[Danish Canadians|Canada]], [[Danish people in Greenland|Greenland]], and [[Danish minority of Southern Schleswig|Germany]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Dargins]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]]
| [[Dagestan]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Kajtak language|Kajtak]], [[Kubachi language|Kubachi]], [[Itsari language|Itsari]], [[Chirag language|Chirag]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Dinka people|Dinka]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Dinka language|Dinka]] 
| [[South Sudan]]
| 4.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dinka|title=Dinka|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Dogon people|Dogon]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Dogon languages|Dogon]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Bandiagara Escarpment]] ([[Mali]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref name="John A. Shoup III"&gt;{{cite book|author=John A. Shoup III|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GN5yv3-U6goC|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-363-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ampari Dogon]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Dogra]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Dogri language|Dogri]]
| [[Jammu Division]] ([[India]])
| 2.5 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Dongxiangs]] 
| [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] → [[Santa language|Santa]]
| [[Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture|Hezhou]] ([[China]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sce|title=Dongxiang|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Islam in China|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Dubla]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bhil languages|Bhil]] → [[Dubli language|Dubli]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to their [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|historical low status in India]], the majority only speak Gujarati.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gujarat]] ([[India]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Dutch people|Dutch]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| [[Netherlands]]
| 29 million&lt;ref&gt;''Autochtone population at 1 January 2006, Central Statistics Bureau, ''Integratiekaart 2006'''', [http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/4336C8A9-8E06-46BE-B1C0-CB0B21AD1AD4/0/2006integratiekaartpub.pdf (external link)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616151614/http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/4336C8A9-8E06-46BE-B1C0-CB0B21AD1AD4/0/2006integratiekaartpub.pdf|date=16 June 2007}} {{in lang|nl}}'''&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Groningen (province)|Gronings]], [[Demographics of Aruba|Arubans]], [[Bonaire|Bonairians]], [[Curaçao]]ans, [[Saba]]ns, [[Sint Maarten|St. Maarteners]], [[Sint Eustatius|St. Eustatians]], [[Surinamese people|Surinamese]], [[Mennonites]] (including [[Russian Mennonite]]s), [[Indo people|Indo]]s, [[Dutch Burghers]], along with [[Dutch diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Dutch Americans|United States]], [[Dutch Canadians|Canada]], [[Dutch Australians|Australia]], and [[Dutch New Zealanders|New Zealand]]
| [[Christianity]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Dyula people|Dyula]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Manding languages|Manding]] → [[Dyula language|Dyula]]
| [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Mali]]
| 2.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dyu|title=Jula|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 November 2018}} Total first-language Dyula users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Ebira people|Ebira]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Nupoid languages|Nupoid]] → [[Ebira language|Ebira]]
| [[Kogi State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/igb|title=Ebira|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=4 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Edo people|Edo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Edo language|Edo]]
| [[Edo State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bin|title=edo|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Total Edo users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ika people|Ika]], [[Emai people|Emai]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Efik people|Efik]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ibibio-Efik languages|Ibibio-Efik]] → [[Efik language|Efik]]
| [[Cross River State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.7 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ekoi people|Ekoi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Jagham language|Ekoi]]
| [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]]
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Emberá]]
| [[Choco languages|Choco]] → [[Embera language|Embera]]
| [[Chocó Department]] ([[Colombia]]), [[Panama]] ([[Darién Province|Darién]], [[Comarca Emberá-Wounaan|Emberá]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/emp|title=Emberá, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=31 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic population of Colombia (which includes speakers of Southern Emberá) with the Panamanian population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Shamanism]]
|-
| [[English people|English]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[English language|English]]
| [[England]] ([[United Kingdom]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Between [[Humphrey Gilbert|1583]] and [[Handover of Hong Kong|1997]], the English, via being the dominant ethnic group in the United Kingdom, created the largest [[British Empire|empire]] in the world, setting up settler colonies in areas such as what is now the United States, Canada, and Australia. Today, the majority of the [[Anglosphere]] is outside of the United Kingdom.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 58.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationprojections/bulletins/subnationalpopulationprojectionsforengland/2016based|title=Subnational population projections for England: 2016-based|website=[[Office for National Statistics]]|accessdate=20 February 2020}}England only - no estimate of English in diaspora.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[British Empire|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Americans]], [[Canadians]], [[Australians]], [[New Zealanders]], [[White Bahamian]]s, [[White Barbadian]]s, [[Demographics of the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islanders]], [[White Dominican (Dominica)|White Dominiquais]], [[White Jamaicans]], [[White people in Botswana|White Botswanans]], [[White people in Kenya|White Kenyans]], [[White Saint Helenians]], [[White people in Zambia|White Zambians]], [[White people in Zimbabwe|White Zimbabweans]], [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]], [[Anglo-Indian]]s, [[Britons in Hong Kong|British Hongkongers]], and [[Europeans in Pakistan|White Pakistanis]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Anglicanism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Esan people|Esan]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Esan language|Esan]]
| [[Esanland]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;Rolle, Nicholas. [http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~fforum/handouts/rolle_fforum_tense.aspect.esan_2012.pdf], ''[[University of California in Berkeley]]'', Berkeley, October 17, 2012. Retrieved on 1 November 2014. Population of Esanland.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Estonians]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] → [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
| [[Estonia]] 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/est|title=Estonian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 November 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Estonian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Võros]], [[Setos]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Ewe people|Ewe]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] → [[Ewe language|Ewe]]
| [[Togo]], [[Ghana]]
| 6.7 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations"&gt;{{cite book|last1=Minahan|first1=James|title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations|volume=II (D–K)|date=2002a|publisher=Greenwood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2WcCIm6WaQC|ref=harv|isbn=9780313321108}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anlo Ewe]], [[Waci language|Waci]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Fang people|Fang]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Beti language|Beti]] → [[Fang language|Fang]]
| [[Río Muni]] ([[Equatorial Guinea]]), [[Gabon]]
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Fijians]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Fijian language|Fijian]]
| [[Fiji]] 
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/Tourism/tourmigstats_index.htm Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709220811/http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/Tourism/tourmigstats_index.htm|date=9 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Methodism|Protestantism]] 
|-
| [[Finns]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] → [[Finnish language|Finnish]]
| [[Finland]]
| 5.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fin|title=Finnish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=3 March 2019}} Total first-language Finnish users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kvens]], [[Forest Finns]], [[Tornedalians]], [[Ingrian Finns]], along with significant populations in [[Sweden Finns|Sweden]], [[Finnish Americans|United States]], and [[Finnish Canadians|Canada]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Flemish people|Flemings]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| [[Flanders]] ([[Belgium]])
| 6.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nld|title=Dutch|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} Belgian population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Fon people|Fon]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] → [[Fon language|Fon]]
| [[Dahomey]] ([[Benin]])
| 1.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fon-peole|title=Fon|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ogu people|Egun]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[French people|French]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[French language|French]]
| [[France]], [[Romandy]] ([[Switzerland]]), [[Aosta Valley]] ([[Italy]])
| 76.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fra|title=French|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 December 2018}} Total first-language French users in all countries, including Walloons and minorities residing in France.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Arpitania|Arpitans]], [[Burgundy|Burgundians]], [[Champenois language|Champenois]], [[Franche-Comté|Free Countians]], [[Gallo language|Gallo]], [[Lorraine]]rs, [[Normandy|Normans]] (including [[Channel Islands|Channel Islanders]]), [[Picardy|Picards]], [[Poitou|Poitevins]] (including [[Saintonge]]ais), [[Saint Barthélemy|Barthélemoise]], [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|Saint-Martinois]], [[Demographics of French Guiana|French Guianese]], [[Caldoche]], [[Réunion]]ese (including [[Zoreilles]]), [[Demographics of Saint Pierre and Miquelon|Saint-Pierrais]], along with [[French diaspora|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Pied-Noir|Pieds-Noirs]], [[French Canadians]] (including [[Québécois people|Quebecers]], [[Acadians]], and [[Métis]]), [[Louisiana Creole people|Louisianians]] (including [[Creoles of color]] and [[Cajuns]]), [[French Haitians]], [[French people in Madagascar|French Malagasy]], [[Mauritian of French origin|Franco-Mauritians]], and [[Franco-Seychellois]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Frisians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Frisian languages|Frisian]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Frisia]] ([[Netherlands]], [[Germany]]) 
| 0.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fry|title=Frisian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/frr|title=Frisian, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total West Frisian users in all countries with the Northern Frisian ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[West Frisians]], [[East Frisians]], [[North Frisians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Friulians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Friulian language|Friulian]]
| [[Friuli]] ([[Italy]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;http://www.arlef.it/en/friulian-language/sociolinguistic-condition/5#/sociolinguistic-condition {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107203239/http://www.arlef.it/en/friulian-language/sociolinguistic-condition/5#/sociolinguistic-condition |date=7 November 2018 }} - Study made by Arlef, Association of Region for the Friulian Language. Number of Friuilian speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Fula people|Fula]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Fula language|Fula]]
| [[West Africa]] ([[Guinea]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]], [[Niger]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Benin]], [[Chad]])&lt;ref name="nomadic" group="note"&gt;This ethnic group is largely a nomadic or semi-nomadic one and do not have a particular area to claim as a primary homeland; these countries are listed here due to having a significant population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Felicity Crowe|title=Modern Muslim Societies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&amp;pg=PA262|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7927-7|page=262}}&lt;/ref&gt;–25 million&lt;ref name="Native Peoples of the World"/&gt;
| [[Wodaabe]], [[Haratin]], [[Fouta Djallon|Fula Jalon]], [[Futa Tooro|Fulakunda]], [[Maasina Fulfulde]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Fur people|Fur]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Fur language|Fur]]
| [[Darfur]] ([[Sudan]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=A Closer Look: Sudan, The Peoples of Darfur|url=http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/sudan/closer-look-sudanbrthe-peoples-darfur|work=Cultural Survival|publisher=Cultural Survival|date=May 7, 2010|accessdate=August 4, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Ga-Adangbe people|Ga-Adangbe]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Ga–Dangme languages|Ga–Dangme]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Greater Accra]] ([[Ghana]])
| 2.1 million&lt;ref name="Ghana"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gh|Ghana}} Ghanaian population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ga language|Ga]], [[Dangme language|Adangbe]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Gagauz language|Gagauz]]
| [[Gagauzia]] ([[Moldova]]), [[Budjak]] ([[Ukraine]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Galicians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Galician language|Galician]]
| [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] ([[Spain]]) 
| 3.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|  
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Baganda|Ganda]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Great Lakes Bantu languages|Great Lakes]] → [[Luganda]] 
| [[Buganda]] ([[Uganda]]) 
| 6.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ug|Uganda}} Ugandan population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Abayudaya]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Garifuna]]
| [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]] → [[Ta-Arawakan languages|Ta-Arawakan]] → [[Garifuna language|Garifuna]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Like its speakers, the Garfuna language is the only remnant of the [[Island Carib language]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Following the [[Second Carib War]], the majority of the Garifuna were deported to Honduras, where they later spread to Guatemala, Belize, and Nicaragua. Since then, Honduras have seen high murder rates, causing many to flee to United States.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Black Carib]]s
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Garo people|Garos]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Garo language|Garo]]
| [[Garo Hills]] ([[India]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Gayonese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] → [[Gayo language|Gayo]]
| [[Indonesia]] ([[Bener Meriah Regency|Bener Meriah]], [[Central Aceh Regency|Central Aceh]], and [[Gayo Lues Regency|Gayo Lues]] Regencies)
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=Aris Ananta|author2=Evi Nurvidya Arifin|author3=M Sairi Hasbullah|author4=Nur Budi Handayani|author5=Agus Pramono |title=Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity|year=2015|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|page=120|isbn=978-981-4519-87-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gbagyi people|Gbagyi]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Nupoid languages|Nupoid]] → [[Gwari language|Gwari]]
| [[Nigeria]] 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gbr|title=Gbagyi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gby|title=Gbari|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=7 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Gbaya people|Gbaya]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]]
| 1.2 million&lt;ref name="The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary"&gt;{{cite book|last=Olson|first=James Stuart|title=The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdaAdBC-_S4C|year=1996|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-27918-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bokoto language|Bokoto]], [[Northwest Gbaya language|Kàrà]], [[Biyanda-Buli language|Buli]] (including [[Toongo language|Toongo]]), [[Ali language|Ali]], [[Mandja people|Mandja]], [[Gbeya language|Gbaya-Bossangoa]], [[Bozom language|Bozom]], [[Mbodomo language|Mbodomo]], [[Gbanu language|Gbanu]], [[Bangandu language|Bangandu]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gedeo people|Gedeo]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Gedeo language|Gedeo]]
| [[Gedeo Zone]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[P'ent'ay|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Gelao people|Gelao]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Kra languages|Kra]] → [[Gelao language|Gelao]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Many of the Gelao dialects are [[mutual intelligibility|mutually unintelligible]] from each other and are known to intermarry with other ethnic groups; recently, these factors have resulted in most of the populations speaking only [[Mandarin Chinese|Chinese]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Guizhou]] ([[China]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-gelo.htm|title=The Gelo ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=25 January 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Taoism]]
|-
| [[Georgians]]
| [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] → [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kat|title=Georgian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=30 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic populations of Georgia and Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Adjarians]], [[Mingrelians]], [[Svans]], [[Tushetians]] (including [[Bats people|Bats]]), [[Meskhetians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Germans]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[German language|German]]
| [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] 
| 100–150 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Jeffrey Cole|title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Wlth0GRi0N0C&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=Ethnic+Groups+of+Europe:+An+Encyclopedia#v=onepage&amp;q=Ethnic%20Groups%20of%20Europe%3A%20An%20Encyclopedia&amp;f=false|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598843026|pages=171}} "Estimates of the total number of Germans in the world range from 100 million to 150 million, depending on how German is defined..."&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bavarians]], [[Franconia]]ns, [[Hessian dialects|Hessians]], [[Hunsrück|Hunsriks]], [[Saxony|Upper Saxons]], [[Lower Saxony|Lower Saxons]], [[Swabians]] (including [[Danube Swabians]]), [[Rhineland]]ers (including [[Cologne|Colognians]]), [[Alsace|Alsatians]], [[German-speaking Switzerland|German Swiss]], [[Liechtensteiners]], [[Pomeranians (German people)|Pomeranians]], [[Volga Germans]], [[Baltic Germans]], [[Silesian German]]s, [[Carpathian Germans]], [[North Schleswig Germans]], [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|Eastern Belgians]], [[Transylvanian Saxons]], [[Amish]] (including [[Pennsylvania Dutch]]), [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]] (including [[Russian Mennonite]]s), along with [[German diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[German Americans|United States]] (including [[German Texan]]s), [[German Brazilians|Brazil]], [[German Mexicans|Mexico]], [[German Argentine|Argentina]], [[German Canadians|Canada]], [[German Chileans|Chile]], [[Kazakhstan Germans|Kazakhstan]], [[German Australians|Australia]], and [[German New Zealanders|New Zealand]].
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Gola people|Gola]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gola language|Gola]]
| [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gol|title=Gola|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=4 January 2019}} Total Gola users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gondi people|Gonds]] 
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Gondi language|Gondi]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to their [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|historical low status in India]], the majority only speak Hindi.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gondwana (India)|Gondwana]] ([[India]])
| 13.3 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Godha]], [[Madia Gond]]s, [[Muria people|Muria]], [[Koya (tribe)|Koya]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Gorontaloan people|Gorontaloans]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Gorontalo language|Gorontaloan]] 
| [[Gorontalo]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1.8 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Greeks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Greek language|Greek]]
| [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]]
| 17 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Greece|year=2013|origyear=1992|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-65644-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M492AgAAQBAJ|ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Greek Cypriots]], [[Pontic Greeks]], [[Cappadocian Greeks]], [[Sarakatsani]], [[Urums]], [[Griko people|Griko]], [[Macedonians (Greeks)|Macedonian Greeks]], along with [[Greek diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Greeks in Albania|Albania]] (including [[Northern Epirus|Northern Epirotes]]), [[Greeks in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Greeks in Georgia|Georgia]], [[Greek Americans|the United States]], the [[Greeks in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Greeks in Germany|Germany]], [[Greek Australians|Australia]], and [[Greek Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Greek Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Guang people|Guan]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Guang languages|Guang]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ghana]] ([[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong-Ahafo]] and [[Volta Region|Volta]] Regions)
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Ghana"/&gt;
| [[Gonja people|Gonja]], [[Kyode people|Kyode]], [[Cherepon language|Cherepon]], [[Efutu people|Efutu]], [[Ginyanga language|Anyanga]], [[Larteh language|Larteh]], [[Chumburung language|Chumburung]], [[Krache language|Krache]], [[Gua language|Anum-Boso]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]]
| [[Tupian languages|Tupian]] → [[Guarani language|Guarani]]
| [[Paraguay]], [[Misiones Province|Misiones]] ([[Argentina]]), [[Bolivia]]
| 5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Guarani|title=Guaraní|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Eastern Bolivian Guaraní|Chiriguanos]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Demographics of Paraguay|Paraguayans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] 
| [[Gujarat]] ([[India]])
| 60 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Koli people|Koli]], [[Bharwad]], [[Khoja]], [[Patidar]], [[Sunni Bohra]], [[Lohana]], [[Vagri]], [[Kharwa caste|Kharva]], [[Charan]], [[Baria caste|Baria]], [[Momna]], [[Ghanchi (Muslim)|Ghanchi]], [[Shenva]], [[Bhambi Khalpa]], [[Zarabes]], [[Bhoi]], [[Luso-Indian]]s, [[Gujarati Americans]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Gumuz people|Gumuz]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Gumuz language|Gumuz]]
| [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religion]] 
|-
| [[Gurage people|Gurage]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Gurage languages|Gurage]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Gurage Zone|Guragia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1.9 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| [[Soddo language|Kistane]], [[Zay people|Zay]], [[Inor language|Inor]], [[Mesqan language|Mesqan]], [[Sebat Bet Gurage language|Sebat Bet]] (including [[Chaha language|Chaha]] and [[Muher language|Muher]])
| [[Christianity]] 
|-
| [[Gurma people|Gurma]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Gourmanché language|Gourmanché]]
| [[Gourma Province|Gurmaland]] ([[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gux|title=Gourmanchéma|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=5 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ntcham language|Ntcham]], [[Bimoba people|Bimoba]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Gurunsi peoples|Gurunsi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Gurunsi languages|Gurunsi]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]], [[Togo]]
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|uv|Burkina Faso}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gh|Ghana}} Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations. The CIA does not have percentages for the Togolese population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lukpa language|Lukpa]], [[Kabye people|Kabye]], [[Tem people|Tem]], [[Lamba people|Lamba]], [[Delo language|Delo]], [[Bago-Kusuntu language|Bago-Kusuntu]], [[Chala language|Chala]], [[Lyélé language|Lyélé]], [[Nuna people|Nuna]], [[Kalamsé language|Kalamsé]], [[Pana language (Gur)|Pana]], [[Kassena]], [[Winye language|Winye]], [[Deg language|Deg]], [[Puguli language|Puguli]], [[Paasaal language|Paasaal]], [[Sisaala language|Sisaala]], [[Chakali language|Chakali]], [[Siti language|Siti]], [[Tamprusi language|Tamprusi]], [[Vagla language|Vagla]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Hadiya people|Hadiya]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]]
| [[Hadiya Zone|Hadiya]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Han Chinese]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| [[China]]
| 1,315 million&lt;ref name="Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia"&gt;{{cite book|author=James B. Minahan|title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1610690184|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610690188}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Subei people|Subei]], [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] (including [[Taishanese people|Taishanese]], [[Hong Kong people|Hongkongers]], [[Tanka people|Tankas]], [[Chuanqing people|Chuanqing]] and [[Macanese people|Macanese]]), [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Min Chinese speakers|Fujianese]] (including [[Fuzhou people|Fuzhounese]], [[Hainan people|Hainanese]], [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]], [[Hui'an maidens]], [[Putian people|Putianese]], and [[Teochew people|Teochew]]), [[Gaoshan Han]], [[Gan Chinese-speaking people|Gan]], [[Hakka people|Hakka]] (including [[Ngái people|Ngái]]), [[Hebei people|Hebei]], [[Hunanese people|Hunanese]], [[Jianghuai people|Jianghuai]], [[Shandong people|Shandong]], [[Sichuanese people|Sichuanese]], [[Wu Chinese-speaking people|Wu]] (including [[Shanghainese people|Shanghainese]], [[Ningbonese people|Ningbonese]], and [[Wenzhou people|Wenzhou]]), [[Han Taiwanese]], along with [[Overseas Chinese|significant populations]] in the [[Chinese Americans|United States]], [[Malaysian Chinese|Malaysia]] (including [[Peranakan]]), [[Chinese Singaporeans|Singapore]], [[Thai Chinese|Thailand]], [[Chinese Indonesians|Indonesia]], [[Chinese people in Myanmar|Myanmar]], [[Chinese Canadians|Canada]], the [[Chinese Filipino|Philippines]] (including [[Sangley]]s), [[Chinese Peruvians|Peru]], [[Chinese Australians|Australia]], [[Hoa people|Vietnam]], [[Chinese people in Japan|Japan]], [[Ethnic Chinese in Russia|Russia]], [[Chinese diaspora in France|France]] (including [[Chinois (Réunion)|Chinois]]), the [[British Chinese|United Kingdom]], [[Chinese South Africans|South Africa]], [[Chinese people in Italy|Italy]], [[Chinese people in Germany|Germany]], [[Chinese people in Korea|Korea]], [[Chinese people in Spain|Spain]], [[Chinese community in India|India]], [[Laotian Chinese|Laos]], [[Chinese Brazilians|Brazil]], the [[Chinese people in the Netherlands|Netherlands]], [[Ethnic Chinese in Panama|Panama]], and [[Chinese New Zealanders|New Zealand]]
| [[Chinese folk religion]]
|-
| [[Hani people|Hani]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]] → [[Hani language|Hani]]
| [[Yunnan]] ([[China]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hani.htm|title=The Hani ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Harari people|Harari]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Harari language|Harari]]
| [[Harari Region|Hararia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Lovise|first1=Alean|title=The Politics of Ethnicity in Ethiopia|date=22 June 2011|publisher=BRILL|page=154|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3dmM4Cs5KM0C&amp;pg=PA154&amp;dq=like+the+harar,+with+a+population+of+around+200,000#v=onepage&amp;q=like%20the%20harar%2C%20with%20a%20population%20of%20around%20200%2C000&amp;f=false|accessdate=23 February 2017|isbn=978-9004207295}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Hausa people|Hausa]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Hausa language|Hausa]] 
| [[North West (Nigeria)|Hausaland]] ([[Niger]], [[Nigeria]])
| 43.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hau|title=Hausa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Total first-language Hausa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Native Hawaiians|Hawaiians]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Since [[Newlands Resolution|Hawaii's annexation into the United States]], [[American English|English]] has almost completely supplanted Hawaiian.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Hawaii]] ([[United States]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Pacific Islander Americans"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Hazaras]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] → [[Hazaragi dialect|Hazaragi]]
| [[Hazarajat]] ([[Afghanistan]])
| 5–8 million&lt;ref name="Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia"/&gt;
| [[Aimaq Hazara]], [[Hazara Australians]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Twelver|Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Herero people|Herero]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Herero language|Herero]] 
| [[Hereroland]] ([[Namibia]]), [[Angola]]
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Himba people|OvaHimba]], [[Mbanderu people|Ovambanderu]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Hmong people|Hmong]]
| [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] → [[Hmongic languages|Hmongic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Guizhou]] ([[China]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Following the suppression of [[Miao Rebellion (1854–73)|Miao Rebellion of 1854–1873]], the majority of the Hmong fled further south to [[Guangxi]], [[Yunnan]], Vietnam, and Laos.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 14–15 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lemoine|first=Jacques|year=2005|title=What is the actual number of (H)mong in the world?|journal=Hmong Studies Journal|volume=6|url=http://www.hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[A-Hmao]], [[Gha-Mu people|Gha-Mu]], [[Xong language|Xong]], [[Pa-Hng language|Pa-Hng]], [[Hmong Americans]]
| [[Hmong folk religion]]
|-
| [[Huli people|Huli]]
| [[Trans–New Guinea languages|Trans–New Guinea]] → [[Engan languages|Engan]]  → [[Huli language|Huli]] 
| [[Southern Highlands Province]] ([[Papua New Guinea]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;"Papua New Guinea National Population and Housing Census 2011: Final figures", Port Moresby PNG National Statistical Office 2014&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Hungarians]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] → [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
| [[Hungary]], [[Székely Land]] ([[Romania]]), [[Upper Hungary|Felvidék]] ([[Slovakia]])
| 12.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hun|title=Hungarian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=17 December 2018}} Total 
Hungarian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Jasz people|Jasz]], [[Palóc]], along with [[Hungarian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Hungarians in Romania|Romania]] (including [[Székelys]] and [[Csangos]]), [[Hungarians in Slovakia|Slovakia]], [[Hungarians in Serbia|Serbia]], [[Hungarians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Hungarians of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Hungarians in Slovenia|Slovenia]], [[Hungarians in Germany|Germany]], the [[Hungarian Americans|United States]], and [[Hungarian Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Roman Catholicism in Hungary|Catholicism]] 
|-
| [[Hutu]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Great Lakes Bantu languages|Great Lakes]] → [[Rwanda-Rundi]]&lt;ref name="Hutu, Tutsi, Twa" group="note"&gt;Refers specifically to the [[Kinyarwanda]] and [[Kirundi]] dialects. The other speakers of the dialects within the Rwanda-Rundi continuum are considered to be separate from the Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa peoples.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kivu]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 9.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hutu|title=Hutu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Iban people|Iban]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Iban language|Iban]]
| [[Sarawak]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/iba|title=Iban|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=18 February 2019}} Total first-language Iban users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Dayak Mualang|Mualang]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ibanag people|Ibanag]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]] → [[Ibanag language|Ibanag]]
| [[Philippines]] ([[Isabela (province)|Isabela]], [[Cagayan]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ibg|title=Ibanag|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=2 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Ibibio people|Ibibio]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ibibio-Efik languages|Ibibio-Efik]] → [[Ibibio language|Ibibio]]
| [[Akwa Ibom State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 4.5 million&lt;ref name="Nigeria"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ni|Nigeria}} Nigerian population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Eket]], [[Aro people|Aro]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Icelanders]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] 
| [[Iceland]] 
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Idoma people|Idoma]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Idomoid languages|Idomoid]] → [[Idoma language|Idoma]]
| [[Benue State]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/idu|title=Idoma|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=11 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Agatu language|Agatu]], [[Alago language|Alago]], [[Yala language|Yala]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Igbo people|Igbo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Igbo language|Igbo]] 
| [[Igboland]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Igbo|title=Igbo|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anioma people|Anioma]], [[Aro people|Aro]], [[Edda people|Edda]], [[Ekpeye people|Ekpeye]], [[Etche]], [[Ezaa people|Ezaa]], [[Ika people|Ika]], [[Ikwerre people|Ikwerre]], [[Ikwo people|Ikwo]], [[Isu people|Isu]], [[Izzi people|Izzi]], [[Mbaise]], [[Mgbo people|Mgbo]], [[Ngwa]], [[Nri-Igbo]], [[Ogba people|Ogba]], [[Ohafia]], [[Ohuhu people|Ohuhu]], [[Onitsha-Ado]], [[Ukwuani people|Ukwuani]], [[Waawa]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda|Antiguans and Barbudans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Igede]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Idomoid languages|Idomoid]] → [[Igede language|Igede]]
| [[Benue State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Igorot people|Igorot]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Cordillera Administrative Region]] ([[Philippines]])
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Igorot|title=Igorot|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=2 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Balangao people|Balangao]], [[Bontoc language|Bontoc]], [[Ibaloi people|Ibaloi]], [[Ifugao language|Ifugao]] (including [[Kalanguya people|Kalanguya]]), [[Isnag people|Isnag]], [[Kalinga language|Kalinga]], [[Kankanaey people|Kankanaey]]
| [[Anito|Anitism]]
|-
| [[Ijaw people|Ijaw]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ijaw languages|Ijaw]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Nigeria]] ([[Rivers State|Rivers]], [[Bayelsa State|Bayelsa]], and [[Delta State|Delta]] States)
| 14 million&lt;ref name="John A. Shoup III"/&gt;
| [[Bille tribe|Bille]], [[Engenni people|Engenni]], [[Ibani tribe|Ibani]], [[Kalabari tribe|Kalabari]], [[Kula tribe (Rivers State)|Kula]], [[Nkoro tribe|Nkoro]], [[Nkoroo people|Nkoroo]], [[Obolo people|Obolo]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]] → [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]
| [[Ilocos Region]] ([[Philippines]])
| 10 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ilocano|title=Ilocano|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Ingush people|Ingush]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Nakh languages|Nakh]] → [[Ingush language|Ingush]]
| [[Ingushetia]] ([[Russia]]) 
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Inuit]]
| [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] → [[Inuit languages|Inuit]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Greenland]] ([[Denmark]]), [[Canada]] ([[Nunavut]], [[Nunatsiavut]], [[Nunavik]], [[NunatuKavut]]), [[Alaska]] ([[United States]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gl|Greenland}} {{Cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/171025/mc-a001-eng.htm|title=Inuit population by residence inside or outside Inuit Nunangat, 2016|website=[[Statistics Canada]]|access-date=2017-11-12}} Figure taken by combining both sources. Inuit residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Greenlandic Inuit|Greenlandics]] (including [[Kalaallit]], [[Tunumiit]], [[Inughuit]] and [[Greenlandic people in Denmark|Greenlandic Danes]]), [[Iñupiat]], [[Inuktitut]], [[Inuvialuit]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Iranun people|Iranun]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Iranun language|Iranun]]
| [[Mindanao]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Irish people|Irish]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Irish language|Irish]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ireland]] ([[Republic of Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;During the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]], many Irish people fled to places like Argentina, Mexico, and the United States. Today, the majority of people claiming Irish ethnicity resides outside of Ireland.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 80 million&lt;ref name="ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2009/05/28141101/6|title=The Scottish Diaspora and Diaspora Strategy: Insights and Lessons from Ireland|first=Scottish Government, St. Andrew's House, Regent Road, Edinburgh EH1 3DG Tel:0131 556 8400|last=ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk|date=29 May 2009|website=www.scotland.gov.uk|accessdate=22 October 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Irish Travellers]], [[Ulster Irish]], along with [[Irish diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Irish Americans|United States]], [[Irish Australians|Australia]], [[Irish Canadians|Canada]], [[Irish Argentine|Argentina]], [[Irish immigration to Mexico|Mexico]] and [[Irish New Zealanders|New Zealand]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Roman Catholicism in Ireland|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Iroquois]]
| [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;With the exception of Cherokee, all Iroquoian speakers are seen as one ethnicity. However, due to a long history of [[forced assimilation]] by both [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|American]] and [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Canadian]] governments, the vast majority can only speak English.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[United States]], [[Canada]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="American Indian/First Nation"&gt;{{cite web|title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf|website=census.gov|accessdate=7 March 2017}} {{Cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/abpopprof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&amp;Geo1=PR&amp;Code1=01&amp;Data=Count&amp;SearchText=Canada&amp;SearchType=Begins&amp;B1=All&amp;C1=All&amp;SEX_ID=1&amp;AGE_ID=1&amp;RESGEO_ID=1|title=Aboriginal Population Profile, 2016 Census|publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-11-23}} Figure taken by combining the American Indian
and Alaska Native tribal grouping alone from Table 7 or in any combination from the American Census with the total population of Aboriginal ancestry responses in the Canadian census. The American Census lists the Ojibwe as Chippewa. The Canadian Census spells the Ojibwe as Ojibwa and splits the Iroquois into four groups: Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, and Iroquois.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mohawk people|Mohawk]], [[Oneida people|Oneida]], [[Onondaga people|Onondaga]], [[Cayuga people|Cayuga]], [[Seneca people|Seneca]], [[Tuscarora people|Tuscarora]]
| [[Longhouse Religion]]
|-
| [[Isan people|Isan]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Lao language|Lao]] → [[Isan language|Isan]]
| [[Isan]] ([[Thailand]])
| 22 million&lt;ref name="Peoples of the Buddhist World"&gt;{{cite book|first=Paul (ed.)|last=Hattaway|title=Peoples of the Buddhist World|publisher=William Carey Library|year=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Isoko people|Isoko]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Isoko language|Isoko]] 
| [[Isoko region]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.6 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Italians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Italian language|Italian]]
| [[Italy]], [[Ticino]] ([[Switzerland]])
| 69&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf|title=Eurobarometer – Europeans and their languages}}, February 2006. Number of native Italian speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;–140 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.progettoculturale.it/cci_new/documenti_cei/2011-03/08-23/4%20-%20Rapp%20Italiani.pdf|title=Rapporto Italiani nel Mondo 2010|date=December 2010|website=Fondazione Migrantes|language=Italian|access-date=2018-11-22}} Includes citizens of Brazil and the United States who identify as being of partial Italian ancestry.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sicilians]], [[Waldensians]], [[Lazio|Lazians]], [[Marche|Marchigianos]], [[Tuscany|Tuscans]], [[Umbria]]ns, [[Emilian dialect|Emilian]], [[Romagnol dialect|Romagnol]] (including [[Demographics of San Marino|Sanmarinese]]), [[Trentino|Trentinis]], [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurians]] (including [[Demographics of Monaco|Monégasque]]), [[Lombardy|Lombards]], [[Piedmont]]ese, [[Apulia]]ns, [[Calabria]]ns, [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitans]] (including [[Abruzzo|Abruzzans]], [[Molise|Molisans]], [[Basilicata]]ns, and [[Campania]]ns), [[Veneto|Venetians]] along with [[Italian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Italian Argentines|Argentina]], [[Italian Brazilians|Brazil]], the [[Italian Americans|United States]], [[Italo-Venezuelans|Venezuela]], [[Italian Canadians|Canada]], [[Italians in France|France]], [[Italian Peruvians|Peru]], [[Italian Uruguayans|Uruguay]], [[Italian Australians|Australia]], [[Italians in Germany|Germany]], [[Italian Chileans|Chile]] and the [[Italians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Itawes]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Northern Luzon languages|Cordilleran]] → [[Itawis language|Itawis]]
| [[Cagayan Valley]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Japanese people|Japanese]]
| [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] → [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 
| [[Japan]]
| 128.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/jpn|title=Japanese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=17 December 2018}} Total first-language Japanese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kantō dialect|Kantō]], [[Kansai dialect|Kansai]], [[Hokkaido dialects|Hokkaido]], [[Tōhoku dialect|Tōhoku]], [[Hōnichi dialect|Hōnichi]], [[Kagoshima dialect|Satsugū]], [[Chūgoku dialect|Chūgoku]], [[Niigata Prefecture|Echigo]], [[Tōkai region|Tōkai]], [[Shin'etsu region|Shinshuu]], [[Hokuriku dialect|Hokuriku]], [[Hachijō language|Hachijō]], along with [[Japanese diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Japanese Brazilians|Brazil]], the [[Japanese Americans|United States]] and the [[Japanese in the Philippines|Philippines]].
| [[Shinto]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The majority of the Japanese practiced a [[Religious syncretism|syncretised]] form of Shinto and [[Buddhism in Japan|Buddhism]] called [[Shinbutsu-shūgō]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[Jarai people|Jarai]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Jarai language|Jarai]]
| [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] ([[Vietnam]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Javanese people|Javanese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Javanese language|Javanese]]
| [[Java]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 95.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Cirebonese]], [[Osing people|Osing]], [[Tenggerese people|Tenggerese]], [[Boyanese]], [[Samin people|Samin]], [[Banyumasan people|Banyumasan]], along with significant populations in [[Javanese Malaysians|Malaysia]], [[Javanese Surinamese|Suriname]], [[Indonesians in Hong Kong|China]], and [[Indonesians in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Jews]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Despite the [[Revival of the Hebrew language|successful revival]] of the Hebrew language, many Jews continue to speak the [[Jewish languages|various languages]] that have developed by the diaspora populations, including [[Yiddish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]], and [[Judeo-Arabic languages|Judeo-Arabic]]. In addition, English serves as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of Israel.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Israel]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Until [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|1948]], the Jews were largely a diaspora ethnicity, with the [[Jewish identity]] being claimed mostly by descendants of those that left Israel following the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] while the remaining population evolved into the Palestinians. Despite some entire Jewish communities [[Aliyah|migrating]] back to Israel, the Israelis only make up a plurality of the worldwide Jewish population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 17.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|editor-last1=Dashefsky|editor-first1=Arnold|editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky|editor-last2=DellaPergola|editor-first2=Sergio|editor-link2=Sergio DellaPergola|editor-last3=Sheskin|editor-first3=Ira|date=2017|title=World Jewish Population, 2016|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/World_Jewish_Population_2017_AJYB_DataBank_Final.pdf|publisher=Berman Jewish DataBank|access-date=12 June 2017}} Population with Jewish parents (including converts to Judaism, descendants of converts to Judaism, non-observant Jews and those with only Jewish fathers).&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazim]], [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]] (including [[Moroccan Jews]], [[History of the Jews in Tunisia|Tunisian Jews]], and [[Berber Jews|Toshavim]]), [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]] (including [[Syrian Jews|Syrian]] and [[Bukharan Jews|Bukharan]] Jews), [[Yemenite Jews|Teimanim]], [[Beta Israel]], [[Italian Jews|Italkim]], [[Romaniote Jews|Romaniotes]], [[Mountain Jews|Juhurim]], [[Krymchaks]], [[Bene Israel]], [[Cochin Jews|Cochin]], [[Lishanid Noshan]], [[Israelis]], along with [[Jewish diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[American Jews|United States]], [[History of the Jews in France|France]], [[History of the Jews in Canada|Canada]], the [[British Jews|United Kingdom]], [[History of the Jews in Argentina|Argentina]], [[History of the Jews in Russia|Russia]], [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]], and [[History of the Jews in Australia|Australia]]
| [[Judaism]]
|-
| [[Jingpo people|Jingpo]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Jingpho language|Jingpho]]
| [[Kachin State]] ([[Myanmar]]), [[Yunnan]] ([[China]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kac|title=Jingpho|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=28 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining the Burmese population with the ethnic population of China.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Jola people|Jola]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Jola languages|Jola]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Casamance|Jolaland]] ([[Senegal]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;Klein, Martin A. "Shrines of the Slave Trade: Diola Religion and Society in Precolonial Senegambia." The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 31.2 (Autumn 2000): 315. Accessed through [[Gale (Cengage)]], 6 Aug. 2009&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bandial language|Banjaal]], [[Bayot language|Bayot]], [[Jola-Fonyi language|Fogni]], [[Gusilay language|Gusilay]], [[Karon language|Karon]], [[Kasa language|Kasa]], [[Kwatay language|Kuwaataay]], [[Mlomp language|Mlomp]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Jukun people (West Africa)|Jukun]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Jukun Takum language|Jukun Takum]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The [[Wapan language]] have largely replaced Jukun Takum as the main language.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wukari Federation|Wukari]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/juk|title=Wapan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=7 April 2019}} Wapan population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wannu language|Wannu]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Kadazan-Dusun]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Dusunic languages|Dusunic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sabah]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Saw Swee-Hock|title=The Population of Malaysia (Second Edition)|year=2015|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-98-146-2036-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kadazan people|Kadazan]], [[Dusun people|Dusun]], [[Dumpas]], [[Ida'an]], [[Kwijau]], [[Lotud]], [[Mangka'ak]], [[Maragang]], [[Minokok]], [[Orang Sungai]], [[Rumanau people|Rumanau]], [[Rungus people|Rungus]], [[Tambanuo people|Tambanuo]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kalanga people|Kalanga]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Shona language|Shona]] → [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]]
| [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]]
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Language|url=https://kalanga.org/language/|website=Kalanga|publisher=Kalanga Language and Cultural Development Association (KLCDA)|accessdate=18 September 2018}} Taken by combining the Zimbabwean and the Botswanan populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nambya people|Nambya]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kalenjin people|Kalenjin]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Nandi–Markweta languages|Kalenjin]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Rift Valley Province]] ([[Kenya]])
| 5 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.knbs.or.ke/censusethnic.php|title=2009 Census|accessdate=2013-12-16|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121153548/http://www.knbs.or.ke/censusethnic.php|archivedate=2013-11-21}} Kenyan population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Keiyo people|Keiyo]], [[Tugen people|Tugen]], [[Marakwet people|Marakwet]], [[Nandi people|Nandi]], [[Kipsigis people|Kipsigis]], [[Sabaot people|Sabaot]], [[Pokot people|Pökoot]], [[Okiek people|Okiek]], [[Terik people|Terik]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kalinago people|Kalinago]]
|[[Macro-Arawakan languages]] → [[Arawakan languages|Arawakan]] → [[Kalinago]]
|[[Lesser Antilles]]
|0.004 million
|[[Black Carib]]s
|[[Christianity]] → [[Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kamba people|Kamba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kamba language|Kamba]]
| [[Eastern Province (Kenya)|Ukambani]] ([[Kenya]])
| 3.9 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| [[Afro-Paraguayan]]s
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kanak people|Kanaks]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[New Caledonian languages|Kanak]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[New Caledonia|Kanakia]] ([[France]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Population Structure and Trends|url=http://www.isee.nc/population/recensement/structure-de-la-population-et-evolutions|website=Institute de la Statistique et des études économiques Nouvelle-Calédonie|publisher=Institute de la Statistique et des études économiques Nouvelle-Calédonie|accessdate=3 July 2017|language=French}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Haveke language|Haveke]], [[Ajië language|Ajië]], [[Arhâ language|Arhâ]], [[Xârâgurè language|Xârâgurè]], [[Haeke language|Haeke]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kannada people|Kannadigas]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Kannada]] 
| [[Karnataka]] ([[India]])
| 43.7 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Vokkaliga]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] → [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]
| [[Borno State|Kanuriland]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]])
| 8.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kau|title=Kanuri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=28 November 2018}} {{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kbl|title=Kanembu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=22 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the population total of all languages of the Kanuri [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]] with the Kanembu population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kanembu people|Kanembu]], [[Yerwa Kanuri people|Yerwa Kanuri]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Kapampangan people|Kapampangans]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]
| [[Pampanga]] ([[Philippines]])
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kapampangan|title=Kapampangan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kapsiki people|Kapsiki]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Psikyɛ dialect|Kapsiki]]
| [[Mandara Mountains]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]])
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Karachays]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Karachay-Balkar language|Karachay]]
| [[Karachay-Cherkessia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Karakalpaks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Karakalpak language|Karakalpak]]
| [[Karakalpakstan]] ([[Uzbekistan]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kaa|title=Karakalpak|website=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=28 November 2018}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Karbi people|Karbi]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] → [[Karbi language|Karbi]]
| [[Karbi Anglong district]] ([[India]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Amri language|Amri]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Karen people|Karen]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Karenic languages|Karenic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Kayin State|Karen State]] ([[Myanmar]]), [[Thailand]]
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://australiankarenfoundation.org.au/karen_people_18.html|title=Karen people|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524024545/http://australiankarenfoundation.org.au/karen_people_18.html|archivedate=24 May 2015}} Karen population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[S’gaw Karen language|S'gaw Karen]], [[Pwo Karen languages|Pwo Karen]], [[Karenni people|Karenni]] (including [[Kayan people (Myanmar)|Kayan]])
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Kashmiris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] → [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
| [[Kashmir]] ([[India]], [[Pakistan]])
| 6.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Kashmiri Pandit]]s, [[Kashmiris of Punjab]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Kashubians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
| [[Kashubia]] ([[Poland]])
| 0.5&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/iesp/grabowska.pdf|title=The Institute for European Studies, Ethnological institute of UW|date=|accessdate=2012-08-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;–0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=September 2011|title=Polen-Analysen. Die Kaschuben|url=http://www.laender-analysen.de/polen/pdf/PolenAnalysen95.pdf|journal=Länder-Analysen|language=German|volume=Polen NR. 95|pages= 10–13}} Polish population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kazakhs]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] 
| [[Kazakhstan]] 
| 18 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://astanatimes.com/2018/03/kazakhstans-population-tops-18-million/|title=Kazakhstan's population tops 18 million| date=2018-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in [[Kazakhs in China|China]], and [[Kazakhs in Russia|Russia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Khas people|Khas]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Nepali language|Nepali]] 
| [[Nepal]], [[Uttarakhand]] ([[India]])
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pahari|title=Pahāṛī|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chhetri]], [[Bahun]], [[Kami (caste)|Kami]], [[Damai]], [[Sarki (ethnic group)|Sarki]], [[Gandarbha]], [[Thakuri]], [[Badi people|Badi]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Khmer people|Khmer]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
| [[Cambodia]]
| 17 million&lt;ref name="Peoples of the Buddhist World"/&gt;
| Significant populations in the [[Cambodian Americans|United States]] and [[Khmer Krom|Vietnam]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Buddhism in Cambodia|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Khonds]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Kui language (India)|Kui]]
| [[Kandhamal district|Kandhamal]] ([[India]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Khorasani Turks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Khorasani Turkic language|Khorasani Turkic]] 
| [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]] ([[Iran]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/turkic-languages-overview|title=TURKIC LANGUAGES OF PERSIA: AN OVERVIEW|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|language=en|access-date=2018-08-20}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Kikuyu people|Kikuyu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kikuyu language|Kikuyu]]
| [[Kenya]]
| 6.6 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kilba people|Kilba]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Huba language|Huba]]
| [[Hong, Nigeria|Hong]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hbb|title=Nya Huba|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kirati people|Kirati]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kiranti languages|Kiranti]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Eastern Development Region, Nepal|Eastern Development Region]] ([[Nepal]])
| 0.9 million{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|sl|Nepalese}} Nepalese population only. Figure taken using the religious percentage of Kirat Mundhum followers (listed as "Kiranti") with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Limbu people|Limbu]], [[Sunuwar people|Sunuwar]], [[Yakkha]] (including [[Athpare language|Athpare]]), [[Rai people|Rai]] (including [[Kulung people|Kulung]], [[Bantawa language|Bantawa]], and [[Bahing]])
| [[Kirat Mundhum]]
|-
| [[Kissi people|Kissi]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Mel languages|Mel]] → [[Kissi language|Kissi]]
| [[Guinea]], [[Sierra Leone]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kisi|title=Kisi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kofyar people|Kofyar]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Kofyar language|Kofyar]]
| [[Plateau State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Komi peoples|Komi]]
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Permic languages|Permic]] → [[Komi language|Komi]]
| [[Russia]] ([[Komi Republic]], [[Komi-Permyak Okrug|Permyakia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations"/&gt;
| [[Komi-Zyrian language|Komi-Zyrians]], [[Komi-Permyak language|Komi-Permyaks]], [[Izhma Komi]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Konkani people|Konkani]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Konkani language|Konkani]] 
| [[Goa]] ([[India]])
| 2.3 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Luso-Indian]]s
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Kongo people|Kongo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Kongo language|Kongo]]
| [[Kongo Central|Kongoland]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Angola]])
| 10.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kongo-people|title=Kongo|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lari people (Congo)|Lari]], [[Vili people|Vili]], [[Yombe people|Mayombe]], [[Suundi language|Suundi]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as, [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]] 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Konjo people|Konjo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Konjo language (Bantu)|Konjo]]
| [[Rwenzori Mountains]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Uganda]])
| 1.5 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Nande language|Nande]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Konso people|Konso]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Konso language|Konso]]
| [[Konso special woreda|Konso]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Koreans]] 
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
| [[Korean peninsula|Korea]] ([[North Korea]], [[South Korea]])
| 77.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kor|title=Korean|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=19 December 2018}} Total Korean users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Jeju language|Jeju Islanders]], along with [[Korean diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Korean Americans|United States]], [[Koreans in China|China]], [[Koryo-saram|Russia]], [[Koreans in Japan|Japan]], [[Korean Canadians|Canada]], [[Korean Australians|Australia]], [[Koreans in Vietnam|Vietnam]], and the [[Koreans in the Philippines|Philippines]]
| [[Korean shamanism|Shamanism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Kpelle people|Kpelle]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Kpelle language|Kpelle]]
| [[Liberia]], [[Guinea]]
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kpe|title=Kpelle|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Kpelle [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Kposo people|Kposo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kwa languages|Kwa]] → [[Ghana–Togo Mountain languages|Ghana–Togo Mountain]] → [[Kposo language|Kposo]]
| [[Plateaux Region, Togo|Plateaux]] ([[Togo]]), [[Ghana]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kp0|title=Ikposo|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 March 2019}} Total Kposo users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Kru people|Kru]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Kru languages|Kru]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Liberia]] ([[Grand Kru County|Grand Kru]] and [[Maryland County|Maryland]] Counties)
| 3.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|li|Liberia}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|iv|Cote D'Ivoire}} Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population, including Grebo, Krahn, and Sapo. Kru residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aizi]], [[Bété people|Bété]], [[Bakwé language|Bakwé]], [[Grebo people|Grebo]], [[Krahn people|Krahn]] (including [[Sapo language|Sapo]]), [[Kuwaa language|Kuwaa]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kumyks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]] 
| [[Dagestan]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Kunama people|Kunama]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Kunama language|Kunama]]
| [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]]
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Kurds]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Kurdistan]] ([[Turkey]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]])
| 45.6 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-kurdish-population-1232551004 The Kurdish Population.] Current Estimate.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bajalan Kurds|Bajalan]], [[Kurds in Turkey|Kurmanjis]], [[Kurds in Iraq|Sorans]], [[Zazas]], [[Feyli Kurds|Feylis]], [[Laks (Iran)|Iranian Laks]], [[Yazidis]], [[Shabak people|Shabak]], along with [[Kurdish population|significant populations]] in [[Kurds in France|France]] and [[Kurds in Germany|Germany]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Kurukh people|Kurukh]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]
| [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] ([[India]])
| 3.7 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Kisan people|Kisan]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Kuteb people|Kuteb]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Jukunoid languages|Jukunoid]] → [[Kuteb language|Kuteb]]
| [[Taraba State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://kuteb.tripod.com/biography.html|title=The Kuteb People|publisher=Geoffrey G. Gania|date=2005|accessdate=12 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
| [[Kyrgyzstan]]
| 4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kir|title=Kyrgyz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic populations of Kyrgyzstan, China, and Tajikistan.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Hanafi|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Laks (Caucasus)|Laks]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Lak language|Lak]]
| [[Lakia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Lamaholot people|Lamaholot]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Flores–Lembata languages|Flores–Lembata]] → [[Lamaholot language|Lamaholot]]
| [[Solor]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Lampung people|Lampungs]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Lampung language|Lampung]]
| [[Lampung]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Lao people|Lao]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Lao language|Lao]]
| [[Laos]]
| 4 million&lt;ref name="Peoples of the Buddhist World"/&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Latvians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] → [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
| [[Latvia]]
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lav|title=Latvian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=4 January 2019}} Population total of all languages of the Latvia [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Latgalians (modern)|Latgalians]], [[Kursenieki]], [[Selonia]]ns
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Laz people|Laz]]
| [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] → [[Laz language|Laz]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to both [[Turkification]] and the tendency among Georgia-residing Laz to see themselves as being a Georgian subgroup, the majority of Laz either speak Turkish or Georgian.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lazistan Sanjak|Lazistan]] ([[Turkey]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.haberturk.com/yasam/haber/698621-67-milletten-insanimiz-var|title=67 milletten insanımız var!|date=20 December 2011|author=Bülent Günal|accessdate=31 January 2015|language=tr}} Largest estimate of the Laz population in Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Laz people in Turkey|Turkish Laz]], [[Laz people in Georgia|Georgian Laz]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Lega people|Lega]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Lega language|Lega]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|ref={{harvid|Lega Information}}|url=http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Lega.html|title=Lega Information|date=3 November 1998|publisher=University of Iowa|accessdate=2011-12-18|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111143545/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Lega.html|archivedate=11 January 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Lezgins]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Lezgic languages|Lezgic]] → [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]]
| [[Lezgistan]] ([[Russia]], [[Azerbaijan]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lez|title=Lezgins|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 January 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic populations of Russia and Azerbaijan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Hlai people|Li]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Hlai languages|Hlai]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Hainan]] ([[China]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-li.htm|title=The Li ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=20 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Limba people (Sierra Leone)|Limba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Limba language|Limba]]
| [[Sierra Leone]] ([[Bombali District|Bombali]] and [[Koinadugu District]]s)
| 0.4 million&lt;ref name="Sierra Leone"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|sl|Sierra Leone}} Sierra Leonean population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Lisu people|Lisu]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]] → [[Lisu language|Lisu]]
| [[China]], [[Myanmar]]
| 0.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lisu|title=Lisu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lipo language|Lipo]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lisu Church|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Lithuanians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] → [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
| [[Lithuania]]
| 3.7&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Lietuviai Pasaulyje|url=https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/1704467/15_Lietuviai_pasaulyje.pdf|publisher=Lietuvos statistikos departamentas|accessdate=5 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;–4.1 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.anglija.today/imigracija/lietuviai-lietuvoje-ir-uzsienyje-kur-ir-kiek-musu-yra Lietuviai Lietuvoje ir užsienyje: kur ir kiek mūsų yra] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729062035/http://www.anglija.today/imigracija/lietuviai-lietuvoje-ir-uzsienyje-kur-ir-kiek-musu-yra|date=2015-07-29}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Samogitians]], [[Aukstaitians]], [[Lietuvninkai]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Luba people|Luba]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Luban languages|Luban]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Lubaland]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 7 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
| [[Luba-Kasai language|Luba-Kasai]], [[Luba-Katanga language|Luba-Katanga]], [[Hemba people|Hemba]] (including [[Bangubangu]]), [[Songe language|Songe]], [[Lulua people|Lulua]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Luhya people|Luhya]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Luhya language|Luhya]]
| [[Western Province (Kenya)|Western Province]] ([[Kenya]])
| 5.3 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| [[Bukusu]], [[Idakho tribe (Luhya)|Idakho]], [[Isukha tribe (Luhya)|Isukha]], [[Kabras tribe (Luhya)|Kabras]], [[Khayo tribe (Luhya)|Khayo]], [[Kisa tribe (Luhya)|Kisa]], [[Marachi tribe (Luhya)|Marachi]], [[Maragoli tribe (Luhya)|Maragoli]], [[Marama tribe (Luhya)|Marama]], [[Nyole tribe (Luhya)|Nyole]], [[Samia tribe (Luhya)|Samia]], [[Tachoni tribe (Luhya)|Tachoni]], [[Tiriki tribe (Luhya)|Tiriki]], [[Tsotso tribe (Luhya)|Tsotso]], [[Wanga tribe (Luhya)|Wanga]], 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Luo people (Kenya)|Luo]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Luo dialect|Dholuo]]
| [[Kenya]]
| 4 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Lurs]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Luri language|Luri]]
| [[Iran]] ([[Lorestan Province|Lorestan]], [[Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province|Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad]], [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]], [[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]], and [[Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province|Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari]] Provinces)
| 5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lori-language-ii|title=LORI LANGUAGE ii. Sociolinguistic Status – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|language=en|access-date=2018-08-20|quote=In 2003, the Lori-speaking population in Iran was estimated at 4.2 million speakers, or about 6 percent of the national figure (Anonby, 2003b, p. 173). Given the nationwide growth in population since then, the number of Lori speakers in 2012 is likely closer to 5 million.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bakhtiari people|Bakhtiari]], [[Laks (Iran)|Iranian Laks]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Luxembourgers]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[German language|German]] → [[Luxembourgish]]
| [[Luxembourg]], [[Arelerland]] ([[Belgium]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ltz|title=Luxembourgish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total first-language Luxembourgish users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| Significant populations in [[Luxembourgish Brazilians|Brazil]] and the [[Luxembourgish Americans|United States]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Maasai people|Maasai]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Maasai language|Maasai]]
| [[Maasailand]] ([[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]]) 
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mas|title=Maasai|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=13 January 2019}} Total Maasai users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Samburu people|Samburu]], [[Arusha people|Arusha]], [[Kwavi people|Kwavi]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
| [[North Macedonia]] 
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Македонски Иселенички Алманах '95|last= Nasevski|first= Boško|author2= Angelova, Dora. Gerovska, Dragica|year=1995|publisher=Матица на Иселениците на Македонија|location=Skopje|pages=52–53}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Torbesh]], [[Mijaks]], along with [[Macedonian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Macedonian Australians|Australia]] and [[Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia|Greece]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Madi people|Madi]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] → [[Ma'di language|Ma'di]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[South Sudan]], [[Uganda]]
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Madurese people|Madurese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Madurese language|Madurese]]
| [[Madura Island|Madura]] ([[Indonesia]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to poor soil condition in Madura, the majority now live on [[Java]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 7.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|[[Bawean|Boyanese]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Nahdlatul Ulama|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Mafa people|Mafa]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Mafa language|Mafa]]
| [[Cameroon]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/maf|title=Mafa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 February 2019}} Total Mafa users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Magahi people|Magahi]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Magahi language|Magahi]]
| [[Magadha]] ([[India]])
| 12.7 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Magars]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Magar language|Magar]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The majority of the Magars have recently switched to Nepali.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nepal]]
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Magar|title=Magar|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Maguindanao people|Maguindanao]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanao]]
| [[Maguindanao]] ([[Philippines]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maguindanao-people|title=Maguindanao|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Maithils]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
| [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] ([[India]], [[Nepal]])
| 40 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/kirti-jha-azad-separate-mithila-state-cricket/1/452361.html|publisher=m.indiatoday.in|title=Kirti Azad demands a separate Mithila state|access-date=14 February 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Karan Kayastha]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Makassar people|Makassarese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Makassarese language|Makassarese]]
| [[South Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 2.7 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|  
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Makonde people|Makonde]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Makonde language|Makonde]]
| [[Tanzania]], [[Mueda Plateau]] ([[Mozambique]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=John Ndembwike|title=Tanzania: Profile of a Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqcHBZ_0n6gC&amp;pg=PA149|date=October 2009|publisher=Intercontinental Books|isbn=978-9987-9308-1-4|pages=149}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Machinga people|Machinga]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Makua people|Makua]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Makhuwa language|Makhuwa]]
| [[Mozambique]]
| 3.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Andrew Dalby|title=Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKSeVLghcfQC&amp;pg=PA386|year=1998|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|isbn=978-0-231-11568-1|pages=386–387|author-link=Andrew Dalby}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lomwe people|Lomwe]], [[Chuwabu language|Chuwabu]], [[Moniga language|Moniga]], [[Koti language|Koti]], [[Nathembo language|Nathembo]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
| [[Madagascar]], [[Comoros]], [[Mayotte]], [[Réunion]], [[Mauritius]]
| 25 million
| [[Merina people|Merina]], [[Sihanaka]], [[Betsileo people|Betsileo]], [[Zafimaniry]], [[Antaifasy]], [[Antemoro people|Antemoro]], [[Antaisaka people|Antaisaka]], [[Antambahoaka]], [[Antandroy|Tandroy]], [[Antankarana]], [[Antanosy people|Antanosy]], [[Bara people|Bara]], [[Betsimisaraka people|Betsimisaraka]], [[Bezanozano]], [[Mahafaly]], [[Makoa]], [[Mikea people|Mikea]], [[Sakalava people|Sakalava]], [[Tanala]], [[Tsimihety people|Tsimihety]], [[Vezo people|Vezo]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]]
| [[Malay world]] ([[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]])
| 60.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/msa|title=Malay|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Malay [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bruneian Malay people|Bruneians]], [[Kedahan Malay people|Kedahans]], [[Thai Malays|Pattani]], [[Pahang Malays|Pahang]], [[Musi people|Musi]], [[Palembang]]ese, [[Pontianaks]], [[Terengganuan Malay people|Terengganuarians]], [[Kelantanese Malay people|Kelantanese]], [[Perakian Malay people|Perakians]], [[Berau Malays|Berau]], [[Proto-Malay]] (including [[Orang Kuala]], [[Jakun people|Jakun]], [[Orang Rimba]], [[Orang Seletar]], and [[Temuan people|Temuan]]), [[Lubu people|Lubu]], [[Musi language|Palembangnese]], [[Cape Malays]], [[Cocos Malays]], [[Bangka Malay]]s
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Malayali]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Malayalam]]
| [[Kerala]] ([[India]])
| 34.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Ambalavasi]], [[Dheevara (caste)|Dheevara]], [[Nair]], [[Paravar]], [[Saint Thomas Christians]] (including [[Knanaya]]s), [[Mappila]]s, [[Ezhava]], along with significant populations in the [[Kerala Gulf diaspora|United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait and Bahrain]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Maldivians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Maldivian language|Maldivian]]
| [[Maldives]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/div|title=Maldivian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 December 2018}} Total Maldivian users in all countries&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Mahl people|Mahls]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Maltese people|Maltese]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Arabic]] → [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
| [[Malta]]
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mlt|title=Maltese|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 December 2018}} Total Maltese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Gozitans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mambila people|Mambila]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mambila language|Mambila]]
| [[Mambilla Plateau]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mzk|title=Mambila, Nigeria|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mcu|title=Mambila, Cameroon|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Somyev language|Somyev]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Manchu people|Manchu]] 
| [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] → [[Manchu language|Manchu]]&lt;ref name="Tungusic" group="note"&gt;The majority of the Tungusic languages are endangered, and many Tungusic ethnic groups now mostly speak only Russian or Chinese depending on the location of their homeland.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Manchuria]] ([[China]])
| 10.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|script-title=zh:《中国2010年人口普查资料（上中下》|trans-title=Data of 2010 China Population Census|publisher=China Statistics Press|year=2012|isbn=9787503765070|ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Manchu shamanism|Shamanism]]
|-
| [[Mandarese people|Mandarese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Mandar language|Mandar]]
| [[West Sulawesi]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mdr|title=Mandar|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Manding languages|Manding]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mali]], [[The Gambia]], [[Guinea]], [[Senegal]]
| 13&lt;ref name="The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary"/&gt;–20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Godfrey Mwakikagile|title=The Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZL7wIvRlXSwC|year=2010|publisher=New Africa Press|isbn=978-9987-16-023-5|pages=49}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bolon language|Bolon]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Demographics of Montserrat|Montserratians]], [[Cape Verdeans]], and [[Demographics of Martinique|Martinicans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Manggarai people|Manggarai]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]] → [[Manggarai language|Manggarai]]
| [[Manggarai Regency|Manggarai]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.8 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Manjak people|Manjak]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Manjak language|Manjak]]
| [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mfv|title=Mandjak|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 February 2019}} Total Manjak users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Māori people|Māori]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Māori language|Māori]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Although the Māori have been able to [[Māori language revival|halt]] the extinction of their language, the majority still only speak [[New Zealand English|English]] fluently.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[New Zealand]]
| 0.9 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Cook Islanders]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Mapuche]]
| [[Mapuche language|Mapudungun]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to gradual [[Hispanicization]] following the [[Occupation of Araucanía]], the majority of Mapuche can only speak [[Chilean Spanish|Spanish]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] ([[Chile]], [[Argentina]])
| 1.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mapuche|title=Mapuche|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Huilliche people|Huilliche]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Chileans]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Maranao people|Maranao]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Maranao language|Maranao]]
| [[Lanao (province)|Lanao]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maranao|title=Maranao|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Marathi people|Marathi]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| [[Maharashtra]] ([[India]]) 
| 83 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Mahar]], [[Maratha]], [[Kunbi]], [[Dhangar]], [[Bhoi]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Mari people|Mari]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Mari language|Mari]]
| [[Mari El]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Meadow Mari language|Meadow Mari]], [[Hill Mari language|Hill Mari]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Masa people|Masa]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Massa language|Masana]]
| [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]]
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name=joshuapromas/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]], [[Islam]]&lt;ref name =joshuapromas&gt;{{cite web|title=Masa People|url=http://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13560/CM|website=Joshua Project|accessdate=26 January 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| [[Masalit people|Masalit]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Masalit language|Masalit]]
| [[Sudan]], [[Chad]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mls|title=Masalit|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=22 September 2016}} Total Masalit users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Maya peoples|Maya]]
| [[Mayan languages|Mayan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], [[Mexico]] ([[Yucatán]], [[Campeche]], [[Quintana Roo]], [[Tabasco]], [[Chiapas]])
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|language=es|author1=Lorenzo Ochoa|author2=Patricia Martel(dir.)|title=Lengua y cultura mayas|publisher=UNAM|year=2002|isbn=9703200893|pages=170|quote=''El "Pueblo Maya" lo constituyen actualmente algo menos de 6 millones de hablantes de 25 idiomas''}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Yucatec Maya language|Maya]], [[Achi people|Achi]], [[Chuj people|Chuj]], [[Ch'orti' people|Ch'orti']], [[Itza people|Itza]], [[K'iche' people|K'iche']], [[Q'eqchi' people|Q'eqchi']], [[Xinca people|Xinca]], [[Tektitek people|Tektitek]], [[Huastec people|Huastecan]], [[Mopan people|Mopan]], [[Lacandon people|Lacandon]], [[Chontal Maya|Chontal]], [[Akatek people|Akatek]], [[Jakaltek people|Jakaltek]], [[Q’anjob’al people|Q'anjob'al]], [[Tzeltal people|Tzeltal]], [[Mocho’ language|Mocho']], [[Tojolab'al]], [[Mam people|Mam]], [[Ixil people|Ixil]], [[Tzotzil people|Tzotzil]], [[Poqomam people|Poqomam]], [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatecan Maya]], [[Motozintlecos]], [[Awakatek]], [[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]], [[Sakapultek people|Sakapultek]], [[Sipakapense people|Sipakapense]], [[Uspantek people|Uspantek]], [[Ch'ol]], [[Tz'utujil people|Tz'utujil]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Guatemalans]] (including [[Hispanic Belizean]]s) and [[Mexicans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mazahua people|Mazahua]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Oto-Pamean languages|Oto-Pamean]] → [[Mazahua language|Mazahua]]
| [[State of Mexico]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"&gt;[http://site.inali.gob.mx/pdf/libro_lenguas_indigenas_nacionales_en_riesgo_de_desaparicion.pdf ''México: Lenguas indígenas nacionales.''] Mexican population only. Number of indigenous language speakers. Figure taken using the 2010 figures of Table 1.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mazatec]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Popolocan languages|Popolocan]] → [[Mazatecan languages|Mazatecan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Oaxaca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Ayautla Mazatec|Ayautla]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mbaka people|Mbaka]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Mbaka language|Mbaka]]
| [[Central African Republic]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mehri people|Mehri]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Mehri language|Mehri]]
| [[Al Mahrah Governorate|Mahra]] ([[Yemen]], [[Oman]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gdq|title=Mehri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sqt|title=Soqotri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}} Figure taken by the total Mehri users in all countries with the Soqotri population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Soqotri people|Soqotri]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Meitei people|Meitei]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]] → [[Meitei language|Meitei]]
| [[Manipur]] ([[India]])
| 1.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Loi]]
| [[Hinduism]] → [[Vaishnavism]]
|-
| [[Melanau people|Melanau]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Melanau language|Melanau]]
| [[Sarawak]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="The Borneo Post"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mende people|Mende]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Mende language|Mende]]
| [[Sierra Leone]] ([[Southern Province, Sierra Leone|Southern]] and [[Eastern Province, Sierra Leone|Eastern]] Provinces)
| 1.9 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Miꞌkmaq]]
| [[Algic languages|Algic]] → [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] → [[Miꞌkmaq language|Miꞌkmaq]]&lt;ref name="First Nation" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mi'kma'ki]] ([[Canada]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="First Nation Census"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Yao people|Mien]]
| [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien]] → [[Mienic languages|Mienic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[China]] ([[Hunan]], [[Guizhou]]), [[Vietnam]]
| 2.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-yao.htm|title=The Yao ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Iu Mien people|Iu Mien]], [[Kim Mun language|Kim Mun]], [[Dzao Min language|Dzao Min]], [[Biao Min language|Biao Min]], [[Bunu languages|Bunu]], [[Lakkia language|Lakkia]], [[Biao Mon language|Biao Mon]]
| [[Yao folk religion]]
|-
| [[Mijikenda peoples|Mijikenda]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Mijikenda language|Mijikenda]]
| [[Coast Province]] ([[Kenya]])
| 2 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| [[Chonyi people|Chonyi]], [[Giriama people|Giriama]], [[Digo people|Digo]], [[Segeju people|Segeju]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Minahasan people|Minahasan]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Minahasan languages|Minahasan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Minahassa Peninsula]] ([[Indonesia]]) 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Tonsawang language|Tonsawang]], [[Tontemboan language|Tontemboan]], [[Tondano language|Tondano]], [[Tombulu language|Tombulu]], [[Tonsea language|Tonsea]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] → [[Malay language|Malay]] → [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]]
| [[Minangkabau Highlands]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 6.5 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Mising people|Mising]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tani languages|Tani]] → [[Mising language|Mising]]
| [[India]] ([[Assam]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Donyi-Polo]]

|-
| [[Miskito people|Miskito]]
| [[Misumalpan languages|Misumalpan]] → [[Miskito language|Miskito]] 
| [[Mosquito Coast]] ([[Nicaragua]], [[Honduras]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/17/world/americas/nicaragua-dispute-over-indigenous-land-erupts-in-wave-of-killings.html|title=Nicaragua Dispute Over Indigenous Land Erupts in Wave of Killings|last=Robles|first=Frances|date=2016-10-16|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-03-22|issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Moravian Church|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Mixe]]
| [[Mixe–Zoque languages|Mixe–Zoque]] → [[Mixe languages|Mixe]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Oaxaca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mixtec]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Mixtecan languages|Mixtecan]] → [[Mixtec language|Mixtec]]
| [[La Mixteca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Trique]], [[Cuicatecs]], [[Amoltepec Mixtec|Amoltepec]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Mon people|Mon]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Mon language|Mon]] 
| [[Mon State]] ([[Myanmar]]) 
| 1.1 million&lt;ref name="Burma"&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bm|Burma}} Myanmarese population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] 
|-
| [[Mongo people|Mongo]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Mongo language|Mongo]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] ([[Province of Équateur|Équateur]], [[Tshuapa]], [[Mongala]], [[Nord-Ubangi]], [[Sud-Ubangi]])
| 3.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mongo|title=Mongo|work=[[Encyclopedia.com]]|access-date=11 April 2017}} Number of speakers of all [[Bangi–Tetela languages|Mongo languages]]. Source dates backs to 1977; population most likely grown since then.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lia-Ntomba language|Bolia, Ntomba]], [[Ngando people|Ngando]], [[Iyaelima people|Iyaelima]], [[Mbole people|Mbole]], [[Mpama people|Mpama]], [[Nkutu language|Nkutu]], [[Sengele language|Sengele]], [[Hendo language|Hendo]], [[Dengese people|Dengese]], [[Tetela people|Tetela]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Mongols]] 
| [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Inner Mongolia]] ([[China]]), [[Mongolia]]
| 7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mon|title=Mongolian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=22 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/dta|title=Daur|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bua|title=Buriat|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xal|title=Kalmyk-Oirat|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/peh|title=Bonan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mjg|title=Tu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the total users of the Mongolian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]], the Buryat [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]], and Oirat with the ethnic populations of Dagur, Bonan, and Monguor.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Buryats]], [[Barga Mongols|Barga]], [[Oirats]], [[Kalmyks]], [[Daur people|Daur]], [[Moghol people|Moghols]], [[Hamnigan]], [[Monguor people|Monguor]], [[Yugur]], [[Khatso]], [[Bonan people|Bonan]], [[Sart Kalmyks]], [[Soyot]], [[Sichuan Mongols]], [[Sogwo Arig]], [[Altai Uriankhai]], [[Ordos Mongols|Ordos]], [[Kangjia|Kanja]], [[Sogwo Arig]], [[Mughal tribe|Mughals]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Mongondow people|Mongondow]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Mongondow language|Mongondow]]
| [[Bolaang Mongondow Regency|Mongondowia]] ([[Indonesia]]) 
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mog|title=Mongondow|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=5 December 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Montenegrins]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]
| [[Montenegro]]
| 0.6 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| Significant populations in [[Montenegrins of Serbia|Serbia]] and the [[Montenegrin Americans|United States]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Mordvins]]
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mordovia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Erzya language|Erzyas]], [[Mokshas]], [[Qaratays]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Mossi people|Mossi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Gur languages|Gur]] → [[Mossi language|Mossi]]
| [[Mossi Kingdoms|Mossiland]] ([[Burkina Faso]])
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mossi|title=Mossi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mumuye people|Mumuye]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Adamawa languages|Adamawa]] → [[Mumuye language|Mumuye]]
| [[Taraba State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mzm|title=Mumuye|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Muna people|Munanese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Celebic languages|Celebic]] → [[Muna–Buton languages|Munanese]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Muna Island|Muna]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Munda people|Mundas]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Munda languages|Munda]] → [[Mundari language|Mundari]]
| [[India]] ([[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]])
| 2.2 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Sabar people|Sabar]], [[Mahali]]
| [[Sarnaism]]
|-
| [[Murut people|Murut]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Murutic languages|Murutic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Interior Division|Murutia]] ([[Malaysia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|title= 2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia|language=Malay, English|accessdate=17 June 2012|publisher=Department of Statistics, Malaysia|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011081938/http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Taburan_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2012|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Okolod language|Okolod]], [[Keningau Murut language|Keningau]], [[Tagal Murut language|Tagal]], [[Paluan language|Paluan]], [[Selungai Murut language|Selungai]], [[Timugon language|Timugon]], [[Serudung language|Serudung]], [[Sembakung language|Sembakung]], [[Tidong people|Tidong]], [[Kalabakan language|Kalabakan]], [[Bulungan]], [[Bookan language|Bookan]] 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Muscogee]]
| [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] → [[Muscogee language|Muscogee]]&lt;ref name="American Indians" group="note"/&gt;
| [[United States]] ([[Alabama]], [[Tennessee]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]])&lt;ref name="Trial of Tears" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
| [[Coushatta]], [[Alabama people|Alibamu]], [[Hitchiti]], [[Natchez Nation|Natchez]], [[Seminole]]s (including [[Black Seminoles]]), [[Yuchi people|Yuchi]], [[Shawnee people|Shawnee]], [[Creoles of color]], [[Miccosukee]]
| [[Native American religion]] → [[Creek mythology]]
|-
| [[Musgum people|Musgum]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Chadic languages|Chadic]] → [[Musgu language|Musgu]]
| [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North Region]] ([[Cameroon]]), [[Chad]] ([[Chari-Baguirmi (region)|Chari-Baguirmi]], [[Mayo-Kebbi Est]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mug|title=Musgu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=21 February 2019}} Total Musgu users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Mwera people|Mwera]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Mwera language|Mwera]]
| [[Tanzania]] ([[Mtwara Region|Mtwara]] and [[Ruvuma Region|Ruvuma]] Regions)
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mwe|title=Mwera|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Naga people|Naga]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]&lt;ref name="Chin–Naga" group="note"/&gt;
| [[India]] ([[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Assam]]), [[Myanmar]]
| 1.7 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| [[Angami people|Angami]], [[Ao Naga|Ao]], [[Sangtam Naga|Sangtam]], [[Yimchunger]], [[Lotha Naga|Lotha]], [[Chakhesang Naga|Chakhesang]] (including [[Chokri language|Chokri]] and [[Kheza language|Khezha]]), [[Mao Naga|Mao]], [[Pochury Naga|Pochury]], [[Rengma Naga|Rengma]], [[Tangkhul Naga|Tangkhul]], [[Maring Naga|Maring]], [[Zeme Naga|Zemi]], [[Liangmai Naga|Liangmei]], [[Rongmei Naga|Kabui]], [[Maram Naga|Maram]], [[Konyak people|Konyak]], [[Chang Naga|Chang]], [[Wancho people|Wancho]], [[Phom Naga|Phom]], [[Khiamniungan people|Khiemnungan]], [[Tangsa people|Tangsa]], [[Nocte people|Nocte]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Nagpuri people|Nagpuri]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]  → [[Bihari languages|Bihari]] → [[Sadri language|Sadri]]
| [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] ([[India]])
| 4.3 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Chik Baraik]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Nahuas]] 
| [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] → [[Nahuatl]] 
| [[Mexico]] 
| 1.5 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Huasteca Nahuatl|Huasteca Nahuas]], [[Mexicaneros]], [[Sierra Puebla Nahuatl|Sierra Puebla Nahuas]], [[Guerrero Nahuatl|Guerrero Nahuas]], [[Orizaba Nahuatl|Orizaba Nahuas]], [[Tehuacan–Zongolica Nahuatl|Southeastern Puebla Nahuas]], [[Tlaxcala–Puebla Nahuatl|Central Nahuas]], [[Pipil people|Pipil]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Mexicans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Nama people|Nama]]
| [[Khoe languages|Khoe]] → [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoe]]
| [[Namaland]] ([[Namibia]]), [[South Africa]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Namibia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Navajo]]
| [[Dené–Yeniseian languages|Dené–Yeniseian]] → [[Na-Dene languages|Na-Dene]] → [[Southern Athabaskan languages|Apachean]] → [[Navajo language|Navajo]]
| [[Navajo Nation]] ([[United States]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Newar people|Newar]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Newar language|Newar]]
| [[Kathmandu Valley]] ([[Nepal]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Newar|title=Newar|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chitrakar]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Ngaju people|Ngaju]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Ngaju language|Ngaju]]
| [[Central Kalimantan]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nij|title=Ngaju|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bkr|title=Bakumpai|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining both sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bakumpai people|Bakumpai]], [[Meratus Dayak|Meratus]]
| [[Kaharingan]]
|-
| [[Ngalop people|Ngalop]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]] → [[Dzongkha]]
| [[Bhutan]]
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|bt|Bhutan}} Bhutanese population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kheng people|Kheng]], [[Bumthang language|Bumthang]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Ngbandi people|Ngbandi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Ubangian languages|Ubangian]] → [[Ngbandi language|Ngbandi]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]]
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zyama.com/ngbandi/pics..htm Ngbandi Art]&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Yakoma people|Yakoma]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Nias people|Nias]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands languages|Northwest Sumatra–Barrier Islands]] → [[Nias language|Nias]]
| [[Nias]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Nogais]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Nogai language|Nogai]] 
| [[Russia]] ([[Stavropol Krai]], [[Dagestan]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Ak Nogai]], [[Karagash]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Norwegians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] 
| [[Norway]]
| 5.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nor|title=Norwegian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 February 2019}} Total Norwegian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Norwegian diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Norwegian Americans|United States]], and [[Norwegian Canadians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Nubians]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nubian languages|Nubian]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Nubia]] ([[Egypt]], [[Sudan]])
| 3-4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/nubians/|title=Nubians|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 June 2019}} Possible number of Nubians living in Egypt.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nobiin language|Nobiin]], [[Kenzi language|Mattokki]], [[Dongolawi language|Dongolawi]], [[Midob people|Midob]], [[Hill Nubian languages|Hill Nubians]] (including [[Dilling people|Dilling]], [[Debri people|Debri]], [[Ghulfan people|Ghulfan]], [[Kadaru people|Kadaru]], [[Karko people|Karko]], and [[Wali language (Sudan)|Wali]]), [[Birgid language|Birgid]], [[Ja'alin tribe|Ja'alin]] (including [[Bedaria tribe|Bedaria]]), [[Shaigiya tribe|Shaigiya]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Nuer people|Nuer]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Nuer language|Nuer]]
| [[Nuerland]] ([[South Sudan]])
| 2.9 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Nùng people|Nùng]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]] → [[Nung language (Tai)|Nung]]
| [[Vietnam]], [[Guangxi]] ([[China]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
|
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Nuristanis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] ([[Afghanistan]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/47.htm|title=Afghanistan - Nuristani|work=countrystudies.us}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Safed-Posh Kaffirs]] (including [[Askunu language|Askunis]]), [[Kamkata-viri language|Kamkata-viris]] (including [[Kata people|Kata]] and [[Kom people (Afghanistan)|Kom]])
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Nyishi people|Nyishi]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tani languages|Tani]] → [[Nishi language|Nishi]]
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]] ([[India]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Occitans]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Occitan language|Occitan]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Occitania]] ([[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]])
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.minorityrights.org/1626/france/occitanspeakers.html|title=''World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous People''|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429201218/http://www.minorityrights.org/1626/france/occitanspeakers.html|archivedate=2009-04-29}} Total number of people with some knowledge of Occitan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aranese]], [[Auvergne|Auvergnats]], [[Provence|Provençals]], [[Languedoc]]iens, [[Gascony|Gascons]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Odia people|Odia]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Odia language|Odia]] 
| [[Odisha]] ([[India]])
| 37 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Utkala Brahmin]]s, [[Khandayat]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Ogoni people|Ogoni]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Ogoni languages|Ogoni]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Rivers State|Ogoniland]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ogo|title=Khana|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/bvj|title=Baan|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/elm|title=Eleme|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/gkn|title=Gokana|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tkq|title=Tee|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=17 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the Tẹẹ ethnic population with the other four sources.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Baan language|Baan]], [[Eleme people|Eleme]], [[Gokana language|Gokana]], [[Tee language|Tẹẹ]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ojibwe]]
| [[Algic languages|Algic]] → [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] → [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to a long history of [[forced assimilation]] by both [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|American]] and [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Canadian]] governments, the vast majority can only speak English.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anishinaabe tribal political organizations|Anishinaabeland]] ([[Canada]], [[United States]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="American Indian/First Nation"/&gt;
| [[Oji-Cree]], [[Odawa]], [[Potawatomi]], [[Mississaugas]]
| [[Midewiwin]]
|-
| [[Oromo people|Oromo]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Oromo language|Oromo]]
| [[Oromia Region|Oromia]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[Kenya]]
| 25.5 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| [[Borana Oromo people|Boran]], [[Barentu Oromo people|Barentoo]], [[Salale Oromo people|Salale]], [[Macha Oromo people|Macha]], [[Arsi Oromo|Arsi]], [[Wollo Oromo people|Wollo]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Ossetians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] 
| [[South Ossetia]], [[North Ossetia-Alania]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/oss|title=Ossetic|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=19 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic population of Russia with the Georgian, Syrian, and Turkish populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Iron people|Iron]], [[Digor people|Digor]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Ot Danum people|Ot Danum]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Ot Danum language|Ot Danum]]
| [[Indonesia]] ([[West Kalimantan|West]] and [[Central Kalimantan|Central]] Kalimantan)
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Lawangan people|Lawangan]], [[Ma'anyan people|Ma'anyan]]
| [[Kaharingan]]
|-
| [[Otomi]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Otomian languages|Otomian]] → [[Otomi language|Otomi]]
| [[Mexico]] ([[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]], [[Puebla]], [[Veracruz]], [[State of Mexico]], [[Querétaro]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Ovambo people|Ovambo]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Ovambo language|Ovambo]]
| [[Ovamboland]] ([[Namibia]]), [[Angola]]
| 1.6 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Ovimbundu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Umbundu]]
| [[Angola]]
| 4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ovimbundu|title=Ovimbundu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Pa'O people|Pa'O]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Karenic languages|Karenic]] → [[Pa'O language|Pa'O]]
| [[Shan State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 0.8 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Pamiris]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Pamir languages|Pamir]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Pamir Mountains]] ([[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[China]]) 
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Shughni language|Shughni]], [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]] (including [[Tajiks of Xinjiang]]), [[Yazghulami language|Yazghulami]], [[Munji language|Munji]], [[Yidgha language|Yidgha]], [[Sanglechi language|Sanglechi]], [[Ishkashimi language|Ishkashimi]], [[Wakhi people|Wakhi]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Isma'ilism|Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Pangasinan people|Pangasinese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]
| [[Pangasinan]] ([[Philippines]]) 
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pangasinan|title=Pangasinan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Papel people|Papel]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Papel language|Papel]]
| [[Biombo Region]] ([[Guinea-Bissau]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|pu|Guinea-Bissau}} Bissau-Guinean population only. Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Pare people|Pare]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Pare language|Pare]]
| [[Pare Mountains]] ([[Tanzania]])
| 0.9 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Pashayi people|Pashayi]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] → [[Pashayi languages|Pashayi]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Afghanistan]] ([[Laghman Province|Laghman]], [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] and [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]] Provinces)
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/psi|title=Pashai, Southeast|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 January 2019}} Ethnic population; includes other Pashayi speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Pashtuns]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Pashto]]
| [[Pashtunistan]] ([[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]])
| 49.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pbu|title=Pashto, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Possible ethnic population; includes Southern and Central Pashto speakers.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pashtun Americans]], [[Kakar]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Pedi people|Pedi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Sotho–Tswana languages|Sotho–Tswana]] → [[Northern Sotho language|Sepedi]]
| [[Limpopo]] ([[South Africa]])
| 3.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pedi|title=Pedi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=28 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Pende people|Pende]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Pende language|Pende]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Pende|url=https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Pende|work=Art &amp; Life in Africa|publisher=University of Iowa|accessdate=29 October 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Persian people|Persians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] 
| [[Iran]]
| 52.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pes|title=Persian, Iranian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=11 December 2018}} Total Iranian Persian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tat]], along with [[Iranian diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Iranian Americans|United States]], the [[Iranians in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], [[Iranian Canadians|Canada]], [[Iranians in Germany|Germany]], the [[Iranians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Ajam of Bahrain|Bahrain]], [[Iranian Australians|Australia]], and [[Swedish Iranians|Sweden]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Poles]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Polish language|Polish]]
| [[Poland]] 
| 58–60 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=http://polmap.pdg.pl/mapy/polonia_na_swiecie.htm |title="Polmap. Rozmieszczenie ludności pochodzenia polskiego (w mln)" |access-date=3 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815064442/http://polmap.pdg.pl/mapy/polonia_na_swiecie.htm |archive-date=15 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Polish diaspora|Significant populations]] in the [[Polish Americans|United States]], [[Polish Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Poles in Germany|Germany]], [[Polish Canadians|Canada]], [[Poles in Iceland|Iceland]], [[Poles in Sweden|Sweden]], [[Poles in France|France]], the [[Poles in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Polish Argentine|Argentina]], [[Poles in Belarus|Belarus]], [[Polish minority in Russia|Russia]], [[Polish Australians|Australia]], [[Poles in Lithuania|Lithuania]], [[Poles in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Polish minority in the Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and [[Poles in Norway|Norway]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| [[Portugal]]
| 222.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/por|title=Portuguese|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Total first-language Portuguese users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Azores|Azorean]]s, [[Madeira]]ns, along with [[Portuguese Empire|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Brazilians]] (including [[Ribeirinhos]] and [[Pardo Brazilians]]), [[Cape Verdeans]], [[Portuguese Angolans]], [[Portuguese Mozambicans]], [[Luso-Indian]]s, [[Macanese people|Macanese]], [[Kristang people|Kristangs]], and [[Portuguese Burghers]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Punjabis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] 
| [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]] ([[Pakistan]], [[India]])
| 125 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pan|title=Punjabi, Eastern|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnb|title=Punjabi, Western|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining total users of Punjabi, Eastern and Punjabi, Western in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sikhs]], [[Jat people|Jat]], [[Khatri]]s, [[Arain]], [[Awan (tribe)|Awan]], along with [[Punjabi diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[British Punjabis|United Kingdom]], [[Punjabi Canadians|Canada]], and the [[Punjabi Americans|United States]].
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Purépecha]]
| [[Purépecha language|Purépecha]]
| [[Michoacán]] ([[Mexico]]) 
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Qashqai people|Qashqai]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Qashqai language|Qashqai]] 
| [[Fars Province]] ([[Iran]])
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/qxq|title=Kashkay|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=10 February 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Qiang people|Qiang]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture]] ([[China]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-qiang.htm|title=The Qiang ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=25 February 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Qiang folk religion]]
|-
| [[Quechua people|Quechua]] 
| [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Ecuador]]
| 7.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/que|title=Quechua|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=23 December 2018}} Population total of all languages of the Quechua [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Yaru Quechua|Yaru]], [[Cusco Quechua|Cusco]], [[Ayacucho Quechua|Ayacucho]], along with [[Mestizo]]s such as [[Peruvians]], [[Ecuadorians]], and [[Bolivians]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Rade people|Rade]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Rade language|Rade]]
| [[Central Highlands, Vietnam|Central Highlands]] ([[Vietnam]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Rajasthani people|Rajasthanis]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] → [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]]
| [[Rajasthan]] ([[India]])
| 25.8 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Banjara]], [[Gurjar]]s, [[Rajput]]s (including [[Mahyavanshi]], [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandels]], and [[Molesalam Rajput|Molesalam]]), [[Marwari people|Marwari]], [[Charan]], [[Kachhi (caste)|Kachhi]], [[Meena]]
| [[Hindusim]]
|-
| [[Rajbongshi people|Rajbongshi]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Kamtapuri language|Kamtapuri]]
| [[India]] ([[Assam]], [[West Bengal]]), [[Bangladesh]]
| 15 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/rkt|title=Rangpuri|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=12 February 2019}} Total first-language Rangpuri users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Hindusim]]
|-
| [[Rakhine people|Rakhine]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Burmese language|Burmese]] → [[Arakanese language|Arakanese]] 
| [[Rakhine State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arakanese|title=Arakanese|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Marma people|Marma]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] 
|-
| [[Rejang people|Rejangese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Land Dayak languages|Land Dayak]] → [[Rejang language|Rejang]] 
| [[Rejang Lebong Regency]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 2 million&lt;ref&gt;Wurm, Stephen A. and [[Shiro Hattori]], (eds.) (1981) ''Language Atlas of the Pacific Area'' Australian Academy of the Humanities in collaboration with the Japan Academy, Canberra, {{ISBN|0-85883-239-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Rohingya people|Rohingyas]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]] 
| [[Rakhine State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 2.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author1=David Mathieson|title=Perilous Plight: Burma's Rohingya Take to the Seas|date=2009|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|isbn=9781564324856|page=3}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Romani people|Roma]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Romani language|Romani]]
| [[Europe]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Serbia]], [[Slovakia]], [[Czech Republic]])&lt;ref name="nomadic" group="note"/&gt;
| 12 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12977975|work=[[BBC News]]|title=EU demands action to tackle Roma poverty|date=5 April 2011}} Does not include those residing outside of Europe.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Romani people in Italy|Roma]] (including [[Romani people in Austria|Austrian Roma]]), [[Romani people in Spain|Iberian Kale]], [[Finnish Kale]], [[Kale (Welsh Romanies)|Welsh Kale]], [[Romanichal]], [[Sinti]], [[Romani people in France|Manush]], [[Norwegian and Swedish Travellers|Romanisæl]], [[Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians]], [[Boyash]], [[Lom people|Lom]], [[Dom people|Dom]] (including [[Romani people in Egypt|Halebi]], [[Lori people|Lori]], and [[Madari]]), along with [[Romani diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Romani Americans|United States]], and [[Romani people in Brazil|Brazil]].
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Romanians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Romanian language|Romanian]] 
| [[Romania]], [[Moldova]]
| 23.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/ron|title=Romanian|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=13 November 2014}} Total Romanian users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Moldovans]], along with [[Romanian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Romanians in Italy|Italy]], [[Romanians in Germany|Germany]], [[Romanians in Spain|Spain]], [[Romanians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], the [[Romanians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], and [[Romanians in France|France]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Russians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Russian language|Russian]] 
| [[Russia]]
| 129 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/2013/0571/tema02.php|title=журнал "Демоскоп Weekly" № 571 - 572 14 - 31 октября 2013. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сжимающееся русскоязычие. Демографические изменения - не на пользу русскому языку|publisher=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Cossacks]], [[Pomors]], [[Lipovans]], along with [[Russian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Russians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Russians in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Russians in Germany|Germany]], the [[Russian Americans|United States]], [[Russians in Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]], [[Russians in Israel|Israel]], [[Russian Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Russians in Belarus|Belarus]], [[Russian Canadians|Canada]], [[Russians in Latvia|Latvia]], [[Russians in Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]], [[Russians in Moldova|Moldova]], [[Russians in Estonia|Estonia]], [[Russians in Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]], [[Russians in France|France]], [[Russians in Lithuania|Lithuania]] and [[Russians in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Ryukyuan people|Ryukyuans]]
| [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] → [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;All Ryukyuan speakers are seen as one ethnicity; however, due to a history of [[Dialect card|forced assimilation]] by the Japanese government, the majority can only speak Japanese.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ryukyu Islands]] ([[Japan]])
| 1.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|editor1-last=Shimoji|editor1-first=Michinori|editor2-last=Pellard|editor2-first=Thomas|year=2010|title=An Introduction to Ryukyuan languages|publisher=ILCAA|place=Tokyo|pages=2|url=https://lingdy.aa-ken.jp/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/2015-papers-and-presentations-An_introduction_to_Ryukyuan_languages.pdf|isbn=9784863370722|accessdate=June 10, 2018|ref=harv}} Total population of the Ryukyu Islands.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Amami Islands|Amami]] (including [[Kikaijima|Kikai]], [[Amami Ōshima]], [[Tokunoshima]], [[Okinoerabujima|Okinoerabu]], and [[Yoronjima|Yoron]]), [[Okinawa Islands|Okinawan]] (including [[Kunigami language|Kunigami]]) [[Miyako Islands|Miyako]], [[Yaeyama Islands|Yaeyama]], [[Yonaguni]]
| [[Ryukyuan religion]]
|-
| [[Rusyns]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] 
| [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] ([[Ukraine]], [[Slovakia]], [[Poland]])&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Rusyn identity is mostly limited to those residing outside of Carpathian Ruthenia. Within Carpathian Ruthenia itself (especially in the Ukrainian region), the majority of its residents identify themselves as being Ukrainian.&lt;/ref&gt; 
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Paul Magocsi|authorlink=Paul Robert Magocsi|url=http://www.litopys.org.ua/rizne/magocie.htm|year=1995|title=The Rusyn Question|journal=Political Thought|volume=2-3|issue=6}} Estimate of people with Rusyn ancestry.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pannonian Rusyns]], [[Lemkos]], [[Hutsuls]], [[Boykos]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Saho people|Saho]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Saho language|Saho]]
| [[Eritrea]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Saho|title=Saho|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Salar people|Salar]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Salar language|Salar]]
| [[China]] ([[Qinghai]], [[Gansu]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/slr|title=Salar|work=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 February 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Islam in China|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sama-Bajau]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Sama–Bajaw languages|Sama–Bajaw]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] ([[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Brunei]])&lt;ref name="nomadic" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.5–1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sama-people|title=Sama|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Sama language|Sama]] (including [[Banguingui people|Banguingui]]), [[Bajaw language|Bajaw]], [[Abaknon language|Abaknon]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sambal people|Sambal]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Sambalic languages|Sambalic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Zambales]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov.ph/content/zambales-dependency-ratio-down-five-persons-results-2000-census-population-and-housing-nso|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130619230245/http://www.census.gov.ph/content/zambales-dependency-ratio-down-five-persons-results-2000-census-population-and-housing-nso|url-status=dead|title=Zambales: Dependency Ratio Down by Five Persons (Results from the 200…|date=19 June 2013|archivedate=19 June 2013}} Sambal population within Zambales.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Bolinao language|Bolinao]], [[Botolan language|Botolan]] (including [[Banguingui people|Banguingui]])
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sámi people|Sámi]] 
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Sami languages|Sami]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sápmi]] ([[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Russia]]) 
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Sami people|title=Sami in Sweden|url=https://sweden.se/society/sami-in-sweden/|website=sweden.se|date=14 December 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Inari Sami people|Inari Sami]], [[Kildin Sami]], [[Lule Sami]], [[Northern Sami]], [[Pite Sami]], [[Skolts|Skolt Sami]], [[Southern Sami]], [[Ter Sami]], [[Ume Sami]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Samoans]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Samoan language|Samoan]] 
| [[Samoan Islands]] ([[Samoa]], [[American Samoa]])
| 0.6 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Demographics of American Samoa|American Samoans]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Sangirese people|Sangirese]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Sangirese language|Sangirese]]
| [[Sangihe Islands]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute]]|title=Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape|year=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Santal people|Santal]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Munda languages|Munda]] → [[Santali language|Santali]]
| [[India]] ([[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Odisha]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 6.6 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sara people|Sara]] 
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Central Sudanic languages|Central Sudanic]] → [[Sara languages|Sara]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]] 
| 5.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|cd|Chad}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ct|Central African Republic}} Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population. Sara residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ngambay language|Ngambay]], [[Doba language|Doba]], [[Laka language|Laka]], [[Kabba language|Kabba]], [[Sar language|Sar]], [[Mbay language|Mbay]], [[Ngam language|Ngam]], [[Dagba language|Dagba]], [[Gulay language|Gulay]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Sardinian people|Sardinians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]
| [[Sardinia]] ([[Italy]])
| 1.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/srd|title=Sardinian|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 January 2019}} Population total of all languages of the Sardinian [[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sasak people|Sasak]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sasak language|Sasak]]
| [[Lombok]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 3.2 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Savu people|Savu]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]] → [[Sumba languages|Sumba]] → [[Hawu language|Hawu]]
| [[Savu]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/hvn|title=Hawu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=19 January 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Scottish people|Scots]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[Scots]],  [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Scottish Gaelic]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note" /&gt;
| [[Scotland]] ([[United Kingdom]])
| 40 million&lt;ref name="ceu@scotland.gsi.gov.uk"/&gt;
| [[Ulster Scots people|Ulster Scots]], [[Orcadians]], [[Shetlanders]], [[Scottish Highlands|Highlanders]], [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlanders]], along with [[Scottish diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Scottish Americans|United States]] (including [[Scotch-Irish Americans]]), [[Scottish Canadians|Canada]], [[Scottish Australians|Australia]], [[Scottish Argentine|Argentina]], and the [[White Bahamian|Bahamas]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Church of Scotland|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Senufo people|Senufo]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Senufo languages|Senufo]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Mali]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Burkina Faso]]
| 3 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia of African Peoples"&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Diagram Group|title=Encyclopedia of African Peoples|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|location=San Francisco, CA|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJQuAgAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false|isbn=9781135963415|ref=harv}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Nafana people|Nafana]], [[Minyanka language|Minyanka]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Serbs]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Serbo-Croatian]] → [[Serbian language|Serbian]] 
| [[Serbia]], [[Republika Srpska]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
| 11.5–12.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/planeta.301.html:489936-Svaki-drugi-Srbin-zivi-izvan-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018231514/http://rs.one.un.org/organizations/12/Serbian%20Diaspora%20and%20Youth,%20June%202011.pdf|title=Svaki drugi Srbin živi izvan Srbije|date=May 2014|publisher=Novosti|page=5|archive-date=5 June 2019|url-status=dead|access-date=5 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605120034/http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/planeta.301.html:489936-Svaki-drugi-Srbin-zivi-izvan-url%3Dhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018231514/http://rs.one.un.org/organizations/12/Serbian%2520Diaspora%2520and%2520Youth,%2520June%25202011.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|year=2013|title=Serbs around the World by region|url=http://www.serbianunity.com/serbianunitycongress/pdf/world_of_serbs/Serbs_Around_the_World_by_Region.pdf|url-status=dead|publisher=Serbian Unity Congress|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205032421/http://www.serbianunity.com/serbianunitycongress/pdf/world_of_serbs/Serbs_Around_the_World_by_Region.pdf|archivedate=5 December 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Kosovo Serbs]], [[Triestine Serbs]], along with [[Serbian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Serbs of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Serbs in Germany|Germany]], [[Serbs in Austria|Austria]], [[Serbs in France|France]], and [[Swedish Serbs|Sweden]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Serer people|Serer]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Serer language|Serer]]
| [[Senegal]]
| 1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Serer|title=Serer|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Serer-Laalaa|Laalaa]], [[Serer-Ndut people|Ndut]], [[Niominka people|Niominka]], [[Serer-Noon]], [[Palor people|Palor]], [[Saafi people|Saafi]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Shan people|Shan]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Shan language|Shan]]
| [[Shan State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 5 million&lt;ref name="Burma"/&gt;
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Sharchops]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]
| [[Bhutan]] ([[Lhuntse District|Lhuntse]], [[Mongar District|Mongar]], [[Pemagatshel District|Pemagatshel]], [[Samdrup Jongkhar District|Samdrup Jongkhar]], [[Trashigang District|Trashigang]], and [[Trashiyangtse District|Trashiyangtse]] Districts)
| 0.1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Sherbro people|Sherbro]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Mel languages|Mel]] → [[Sherbro language|Sherbro]]
| [[Sherbro Island]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Shilluk people|Shilluk]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Luo languages|Luo]] → [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]]
| [[South Sudan]]
| 1.5 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| [[Gule tribe|Gule]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Shona people|Shona]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]]→ [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Shona language|Shona]]
| [[Mashonaland]] ([[Zimbabwe]])
| 7.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sna|title=Shona|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 December 2018}} Total first-language Shona users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Manyika dialect|Manyika]], [[Ndau people|Ndau]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Sibe people|Sibe]]
| [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] → [[Xibe language|Xibe]]&lt;ref name="Tungusic" group="note"/&gt;
| [[China]] ([[Liaoning]], [[Jilin]], [[Xinjiang]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sjo|title=Xibe|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 January 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Shamanism]]&lt;ref name="non-religious" group="note"/&gt;
|-
| [[Sidama people|Sidama]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Sidamo language|Sidaama]]
| [[Sidama Zone|Sidamia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 7.8 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Siddi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Swahili language|Swahili]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;The Siddi now speak the dominant language of their region.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Pakistan]] ([[Baluchistan]], [[Sindh]]), [[India]] ([[Karnataka]], [[Gujarat]], [[Hyderabad]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Sika people|Sika]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Flores–Lembata languages|Flores–Lembata]] → [[Sika language|Sika]]
| [[Sikka Regency]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sikanese|title=Sikanese|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Silesians]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Silesian language|Silesian]] 
| [[Silesia]] ([[Poland]]), [[Czech Silesia]] ([[Czech Republic]])
| 2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} 
| [[Cieszyn Vlachs]], [[Silesian Gorals]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Silt'e people|Silt'e]] 
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]  → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Gurage languages|Gurage]] → [[Silt'e language|Silt'e]]
| [[Silt'e Zone|Siltia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Sindhis]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
| [[Sindh]] ([[Pakistan]])
| 26 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/snd|title=Sindhi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=31 March 2019}} Ethnic population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Jat people|Jat]], [[Memon people|Memon]], [[Arain]], [[Sindhis in India|Indian Sindhis]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Hanafi|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]
| [[Sri Lanka]] 
| 13.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sinhalese|title=Sinhalese|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Dewa (people)|Dewa]], [[British Sri Lankans]], [[Burgher people|Burghers]] (including [[Portuguese Burghers]] and [[Dutch Burghers]])
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Sioux]] 
| [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] → [[Sioux language|Sioux]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to a history of [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|forced assimilation]] by the American government, the majority can only speak [[American English|English]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Republic of Lakotah proposal|Lakotah]] ([[United States]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="American Indian Census"/&gt;
| [[Lakota people|Lakota]], [[Dakota people|Dakota]], [[Nakota]] (including [[Nakoda (Stoney)|Nakoda]] and [[Assiniboine people|Assiniboine]])
| [[Native American religion]]
|-
| [[Slovaks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
| [[Slovakia]] 
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.sme.sk/c/2422124/Ako-ziju-Slovaci-za-hranicami-Slovensko-mam-rad-ale-mojim-domovom-uz-nie-je.html|title=Ako žijú Slováci za hranicami? Slovensko mám rád, ale mojím domovom už nie je.|trans-title=How do Slovaks live abroad? I like Slovakia but it is no longer my home.|website=Sme.sk|accessdate=2 August 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Slovak diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Slovaks in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], [[Slovaks in Serbia|Serbia]], [[Slovaks in Hungary|Hungary]], [[Slovak Americans|United States]] and [[Slovak Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Slovenes]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
| [[Slovenia]] 
| 2.5 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Carinthian Slovenes]], [[Slovene minority in Italy|Italy Slovenes]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Soga people|Soga]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Soga language|Soga]] 
| [[Busoga]] ([[Uganda]])
| 2.1 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Christianity]], [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Somalis]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] → [[Somali language|Somali]] 
| [[Greater Somalia]] ([[Somalia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Kenya]])
| 16.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/som|title=Somali|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total first-language Somali users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Hawiye]], [[Darod]] (including [[Majeerteen]]), [[Isaaq]], [[Dir (clan)|Dir]], [[Rahanweyn]], [[Madhiban]], [[Yibir]], [[Ajuran (clan)|Ajuran]] along with [[Somali diaspora|significant populations]] in the [[Somali Americans|United States]], the [[Somalis in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], [[Somalis in Sweden|Sweden]], and [[Somali Canadians|Canada]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Shafi‘i|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Songhai people|Songhai]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Songhay languages|Songhai]]
| [[Mali]], [[Niger]]
| 4.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ml|Mali}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ng|Niger}} Figure taken using the percentage listed with the total population. Songhai residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Zarma people|Zarma]]
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Soninke people|Soninke]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Soninke language|Soninke]] 
| [[Mali]] 
| 2.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/snk|title=Soninke|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total Soninke users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Haratin]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Maliki|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Basotho|Sotho]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Sotho–Tswana languages|Sotho–Tswana]] → [[Sotho language|Sotho]]
| [[Free State]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Lesotho]] 
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/sot|title=Sotho, Southern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 December 2018}} Total first-language Southern Sotho users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
|[[Spaniards]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| [[Spain]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Between [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|1492]] and [[Spanish American wars of independence|1833]], the Spaniards [[Spanish Empire|controlled]] most of the [[Americas]], with Mestizo communities forming in areas such as what is now Mexico, Argentina, and Colombia. Today, the majority of the [[Hispanophone|Hispanosphere]] is outside of Spain.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 47 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-business/european-business/spains-population-falls-for-first-time-since-1940s-as-immigrants-flee-crisis/article11450976/ |title=Spain’s population falls for first time since 1940s as immigrants flee crisis |date=22 April 2013 |location=Toronto |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513223727/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-business/european-business/spains-population-falls-for-first-time-since-1940s-as-immigrants-flee-crisis/article11450976/ |archivedate=13 May 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; in Spain.
| [[Castilians]], [[Andalusians]], [[Asturians]] (including [[Vaqueiros de alzada]]), [[Leonese people|Leonese]], [[Cantabrian people|Cantabrians]], [[Aragonese people|Aragonese]], [[Extremadurans]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Canary Islanders]] (including [[Isleño]]s), [[Criollo people|Criollos]], along with [[Spanish diaspora|numerous colonial descendants]] such as [[Hispanos]] (including [[Californio]]s, [[Tejano]]s, and [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Neomexicanos]]), [[Mexicans]], [[Guatemalans]] (including [[Hispanic Belizean]]s), [[Salvadorans]], [[Hondurans]], [[Nicaraguans]], [[Costa Ricans]], [[Panamanians]], [[Colombians]], [[Venezuelans]], [[Ecuadorians]], [[Peruvians]], [[Bolivians]], [[Demographics of Paraguay|Paraguayans]], [[Chileans]], [[Argentines]], [[Uruguayans]], [[Cubans]], [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominicans]], [[Zamboangueño people|Zamboangueños]], [[Puerto Ricans]], [[Fernandino peoples|Fernandinos]], and [[Spanish Filipino]]s
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sui people|Sui]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Kam–Sui languages|Kam–Sui]] → [[Sui language|Sui]]
| [[Sandu Shui Autonomous County]] ([[China]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-shui.htm|title=The Shui ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=25 February 2019}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Sumba people|Sumba]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]] → [[Sumba languages|Sumba]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Sumba]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/akg|title=Anakalangu|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/xbr|title=Kambera|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/kod|title=Kodi|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lmy|title=Lamboya|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/lur|title=Laura|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/mvd|title=Mamboru|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wnk|title=Wanukaka|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wew|title=Wejewa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 June 2019}} Figure taken by combining the Anakalangu, Kambera, Kodi, Lamboya, Laura, Mamboru, and Wejewa populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Anakalangu language|Anakalangu]], [[Kambera language|East Sumbanese]], [[Kodi language|Kodi]], [[Lamboya language|Lamboya]], [[Wejewa language|West Sumbanese]], [[Mamboru language|Mamboru]], [[Wanukaka language|Wanukaka]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]
| [[Java (island)|Java]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 36.7 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"/&gt;
| [[Bantenese people|Bantenese]], [[Baduy people|Baduy]], [[Cirebonese people|Cirebonese]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Sukuma people|Sukuma]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Sukuma language|Sukuma]] 
| [[Tanzania]]
| 9.6 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Sumbawa people|Sumbawa]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Sumbawa language|Sumbawa]]
| [[Sumbawa]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 0.4 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Surma people|Surma]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Surmic languages|Surmic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Ethiopia]], [[South Sudan]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
| [[Mekan people|Me'en]], [[Mursi people|Mursi]], [[Kichepo people|Kichepo]]
| [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Susu people|Susu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Mande languages|Mande]] → [[Susu language|Susu]]
| [[Guinea]], [[Kambia District|Kambia]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
| 2.4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|gv|Guinea}} Guinean population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Swahili people|Swahili]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
| [[Swahili coast]] ([[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Mozambique]], [[Comoros]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Swahili.aspx#1|title=Swahili facts, information, pictures - Encyclopedia.com articles about Swahili|work=[[Encyclopedia.com]]|access-date=11 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Shirazi people|Shirazi]] (including [[Zanzibar]]is, [[Demographics of the Comoros|Comorians]] and [[Mayotte|Maore]])
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Swazi people|Swazi]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Swazi language|Swazi]] 
| [[Mpumalanga]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Eswatini]] 
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Swazi-people|title=Swazi|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[African Zionism]]
|-
| [[Swedes]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] → [[North Germanic languages|Nordic]] → [[Swedish language|Swedish]] 
| [[Sweden]] 
| 7.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.scb.se/sv_/Hitta-statistik/Statistik-efter-amne/Befolkning/Befolkningens-sammansattning/Befolkningsstatistik/25788/25795/Helarsstatistik---Riket/26040/|title=Befolkningsstatistik i sammandrag 1960-2015|date=27 March 2016|accessdate=20 August 2017|url-status=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327122123/http://www.scb.se/sv_/Hitta-statistik/Statistik-efter-amne/Befolkning/Befolkningens-sammansattning/Befolkningsstatistik/25788/25795/Helarsstatistik---Riket/26040/|archivedate=27 March 2016|df=dmy-all}} Swedish population only. Figure taken by subtracting the population with a foreign background with the total population.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Scania]]ns, [[Jamtland|Jamtish]], [[Gotland|Gutnish]], along with [[Swedish diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Swedish-speaking population of Finland|Finland]] (including [[Åland Islands|Åland Swedes]]), [[Swedish Americans|the United States]], [[Swedish Canadians|Canada]], [[Swedish Argentines|Argentina]] and [[Swedes in the United Kingdom|the United Kingdom]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Lutheranism|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Sylhetis]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] → [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]]
| [[Sylhet Division]] ([[Bangladesh]]), [[Barak Valley]] ([[India]])
| 10.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/syl|title=Sylheti|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=6 December 2018}} Total first-language Sylheti users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tabasaran people|Tabasaran]]
| [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] → [[Lezgic languages|Lezgic]] → [[Tabasaran language|Tabasaranese]]
| [[Tabasaransky District|Tabasaranstan]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tagalog people|Tagalogs]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
| [[Philippines]]
| 19.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tagalog|title=Tagalog|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Filipino Americans]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Tahitians]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] → [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]&lt;ref name="France" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Tahiti]] ([[France]])
| 0.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tajiks]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Persian language|Persian]] → [[Tajik language|Tajik]]
| [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]]
| 11.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tajik-people|title=Tajik|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 5.2 million in Tajikistan, 1 million in Uzbekistan, and 5 million in Afghanistan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Chagatai people|Chagatai]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Talysh people|Talysh]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] → [[Talysh language|Talysh]]
| [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]]
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tly|title=Talysh|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total Talysh users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Shia Islam]]
|-
| [[Tama people|Tama]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Tama language|Tama]]
| [[Chad]], [[Sudan]]
| 0.3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tamils]]
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]] ([[India]]), [[Sri Lanka]] ([[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern]] and [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|Eastern]] Provinces)
| 64 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil|title=Tamil|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Demographics of Tamil Nadu|Indian Tamils]] (including [[Vanniyar]] and [[Adi Dravida]]), [[Sri Lankan Tamils]] (including [[Sri Lankan Moors]]), [[Paravar]], along with [[Tamil diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Tamil Malaysians|Malaysia]], [[Tamil South Africans|South Africa]], [[Tamil Americans|the United States]], [[Singapore Tamils|Singapore]], [[Tamil Canadians|Canada]], the [[British Tamil|United Kingdom]], and [[Tamils in France|France]] (including [[Malbars]]).
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Tarok people|Tarok]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Plateau languages|Plateau]] → [[Tarok language|Tarok]]
| [[Plateau State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yer|title=Tarok|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tatars]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Kipchak languages|Kipchak]] → [[Tatar language|Tatar]] 
| [[Tatarstan]] ([[Russia]])
| 5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tatar|title=Tatar|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Volga Tatars]], [[Crimean Tatars]], [[Lipka Tatars]], [[Siberian Tatars]], [[Mishar Tatars]], [[Finnish Tatars]], [[Tatars of Romania|Dobruja Tatars]], [[Chinese Tatars]], [[Nagaybak]], [[Kryashens]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tausūg people|Tausūg]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Visayan languages|Visayan]] → [[Tausug language|Tausug]]
| [[Sulu Archipelago]] ([[Philippines]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tausug|title=Tausug|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 900,000 in Philippines and 200,000 in Malaysia.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tboli people|Tboli]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Tboli language|Tboli]]
| [[South Cotabato]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.1–0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/210932/the-tboli-a-story-of-massive-land-grabbing-through-the-centuries/&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Anito|Anitism]]
|-
| [[Telugu people|Telugu]] 
| [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] → [[Telugu language|Telugu]] 
| [[India]] ([[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]])
| 81.1 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Kamma (caste)|Kamma]], [[Reddy]], [[Velama]], [[Kapu (caste)|Kapu]], [[Raju]], [[Madiga]], [[Mala (caste)|Mala]]
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Temne people|Temne]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Mel languages|Mel]] → [[Temne language|Temne]]
| [[Northern Province, Sierra Leone|Northern Sierra Leone]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
| 1.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Temne|title=Temne|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Thai people|Thais]]
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Thai language|Thai]]
| [[Thailand]] 
| 31.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tha|title=Thai|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=20 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nod|title=Thai, Northern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=20 December 2018}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/sou|title=Thai, Southern|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=20 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining the total number of first-language Thai speakers in all countries with the other two populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Southern Thailand|Southern Thai]], [[Khorat Thai|Khorat]], [[Northern Thai people|Lanna]], [[Tai Lü language|Tai Lü]], [[Thai Americans]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Buddhism in Thailand|Theravada Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Tibet]] ([[China]]) 
| 5.4&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-tibetan.htm|title=The Tibetan ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;–6.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|given=Nicolas|surname=Tournadre|chapter=The Tibetic languages and their classification|pages=103–129|title=Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area|editor1-given=Thomas|editor1-surname=Owen-Smith|editor2-given=Nathan W.|editor2-surname=Hill|publisher=De Gruyter|year=2014|isbn=978-3-11-031074-0}} ([http://www.nicolas-tournadre.net/wp-content/uploads/multimedia/2014-The_Tibetic_languages.pdf preprint])&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Amdo]]lese (including [[Golok people|Golok]] and [[Tebbu people|Tebbu]]), [[Kham]]s, [[Ü-Tsang]] (including [[Ngari Prefecture|Ngari]] and [[Walung people|Walung]]), [[Changpa]], [[Baima people|Baima]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Tigrayans]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]
| [[Eritrean Highlands]] ([[Eritrea]]), [[Tigray Region|Tigrayia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 7.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tir|title=Tigrigna|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=27 February 2019}} Figure taken by combining the ethnic population of Ethiopia with the Eritrean population.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Oriental Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Tigre people|Tigre]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] → [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]] → [[Tigre language|Tigre]]
| [[Eritrea]]
| 1.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|er|Eritrea}} Eritrean population only. Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tiv people|Tiv]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Tiv language|Tiv]]
| [[Benue State]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
| 2.5 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tiv|title=Tiv|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tiwa (Lalung)|Tiwa]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Tiwa language (India)|Tiwa]]&lt;ref name="Assam" group="note"/&gt;
| [[India]] ([[Assam]], [[Meghalaya]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref name="Scheduled Tribes"/&gt;
| 
| [[Hinduism]]
|-
| [[Tlapanec]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Tlapanec language|Tlapanec]]
| [[Guerrero]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Toraja]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi]] → [[Toraja-Sa’dan language|Toraja]]
| [[Tana Toraja Regency|Tana Toraja]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 1.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.toraja.go.id/sosial.php|title=Tana Toraja official website|accessdate=2006-10-04|language=Indonesian|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060529201932/http://www.toraja.go.id/sosial.php|archivedate=May 29, 2006|url-status=dead}} Figure taken by combining both local and diaspora populations.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Toubou people|Toubou]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] → [[Tebu languages|Tebu]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Tibesti Mountains|Toubouland]] ([[Chad]], [[Niger]], [[Sudan]], [[Libya]])
| 2.3 million&lt;ref name="The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary"/&gt;
| [[Daza language|Daza]], [[Teda language|Teda]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Toucouleur people|Toucouleur]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Fula language|Fula]] → [[Pulaar language|Pulaar]]
| [[Futa Tooro]] ([[Senegal]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Encyclopedia Africana"/&gt;
|
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tripuri people|Tripuri]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Sal languages|Sal]] → [[Kokborok]]
| [[Tripura]] ([[India]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="India-Language"/&gt;
| [[Jamatia]], [[Murasing]]
| [[Hinduism]] 
|-
| [[Tsonga people|Tsonga]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]]
| [[Mozambique]] ([[Maputo]] City and [[Province|Maputo Province]], [[Gaza Province]]), [[South Africa]] ([[Limpopo]], [[Mpumalanga]])
| 4.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tsonga|title=Tsonga|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Tswana people|Tswana]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Tswana language|Tswana]]
| [[Botswana]], [[North West (South African province)|South Tswanaland]] ([[South Africa]])
| 4 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tswana|title=Tswana|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Balete people|Balete]], [[Mangwato tribe|Mangwato]], [[Bangwaketse]], [[Rolong tribe|Rolong]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Tujia people|Tujia]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Tujia language|Tujia]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Due to the widespread presence of Chinese, the majority of Tujia only have a passive knowledge of their language.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wuling Mountains]] ([[China]])
| 5.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/data/minorities/Tujia.html|title=The Tujia ethnic minority|website=[[People's Daily]]|accessdate=23 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Nuo folk religion]]
|-
| [[Tupuri people|Tupuri]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Adamawa languages|Adamawa]] → [[Tupuri language|Tupuri]]
| [[Far North Region, Cameroon|Far North Region]] ([[Cameroon]]), [[Mayo-Kébbi (prefecture)|Mayo-Kébbi]] ([[Chad]])
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tui|title=Tupuri|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 February 2019}} Total Tupuri users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Turkana people|Turkana]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]] → [[Turkana language|Turkana]]
| [[Turkana County|Turkanaland]] ([[Kenya]])
| 1 million&lt;ref name="Kenya"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Turkish people|Turks]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| [[Turkey]]
| 79 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/tur|title=Turkish|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 December 2018}} Total first-language Turkish users in all countries, including a large number of [[Minorities in Turkey|minorities residing in Turkey]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Turkish Cypriots]], [[Meskhetian Turks]], [[Yörüks]], along with [[Turkish diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Bulgarian Turks|Bulgaria]], [[Turks in Western Thrace|Greece]], [[Turks in Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Turks in Germany|Germany]], [[Turks in France|France]], [[British Turks|the United Kingdom]], [[Turks in the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Turks in Austria|Austria]], [[Turks in Belgium|Belgium]], [[Turks in Sweden|Sweden]], [[Turkish Americans|the United States]], [[Syrian Turkmen|Syria]], and [[Iraqi Turkmen|Iraq]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Turkmens]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] → [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] 
| [[Turkmenistan]]
| 6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Turkmen-people|title=Turkmen|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Tutsi]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Great Lakes Bantu languages|Great Lakes]] → [[Rwanda-Rundi]]&lt;ref name="Hutu, Tutsi, Twa" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kivu]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]])
| 3 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| [[Banyamulenge]]
| [[Christianity]], [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Tuvans]]
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian]] → [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]]
| [[Tuva]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Tozhu Tuvans]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
|-
| [[Udmurt people|Udmurts]]
| [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] → [[Permic languages|Permic]] → [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]
| [[Udmurtia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.6 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| [[Besermyan]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Urhobo people|Urhobos]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Edoid languages|Edoid]] → [[Urhobo language|Urhobo]] 
| [[Delta State]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 1 million{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}
| 
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Ukrainians]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] → [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| [[Ukraine]]
| 58.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Vic Satzewich|title=The Ukrainian Diaspora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SfWBAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA19|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-43495-4|page=19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Poleshuks]], [[Cossacks]], along with [[Ukrainian diaspora|significant populations]] in [[Ukrainian Americans|the United States]], [[Ukrainian Brazilians|Brazil]], [[Ukrainians in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Ukrainians in Germany|Germany]], [[Ukrainians in Canada|Canada]], [[Ukrainians in Italy|Italy]], [[Ukrainian Argentines|Argentina]], the [[Ukrainians in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]], and [[Ukrainians of Romania|Romania]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Uyghurs]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Karluk languages|Karluk]] → [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] 
| [[East Turkestan|Uyghuristan]] ([[China]])
| 10.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uighur|title=Uighur|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 10 million in China, and 300,000 in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Uyghurs in Kazakhstan]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Islam in China|Sunni Islam]] 
|-
| [[Uzbeks]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Karluk languages|Karluk]] → [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] 
| [[Uzbekistan]]
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Uzbek-people|title=Uzbek|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 16 million in Uzbekistan, 2 million in Afghanistan, 1.38 million in Tajikistan, and 570,000 in Kyrgyzstan.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Uzbeks in Russia]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Venda people|Venda]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Venda language|Tshivenda]]
| [[Vhembe District Municipality|Vendaland]] ([[South Africa]])
| 1.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ven|title=Venda|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=1 December 2018}} Total first-language Venda users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]], [[Traditional African religions]]
|-
| [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] 
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Vietic languages|Vietic]] → [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] 
| [[Vietnam]]
| 73.6 million&lt;ref name="Vietnam"/&gt;
| [[Muong people|Muong]], [[Gin people|Gin]], [[Tay people|Phen]], [[Chut people|Chut]], [[Thổ people|Thổ]], [[Nung people|Nung]], [[Giáy people|Giáy]], along with [[Overseas Vietnamese|significant populations]] in the [[Vietnamese Americans|United States]], [[Vietnamese Cambodians|Cambodia]], [[Vietnamese people in France|France]], [[Vietnamese Australians|Australia]], [[Vietnamese Canadians|Canada]], [[Vietnamese people in Taiwan|Taiwan]], [[Vietnamese people in Japan|Japan]], [[Vietnamese people in Korea|Korea]], [[Vietnamese people in Germany|Germany]] and [[Vietnamese people in Laos|Laos]]
| [[Buddhism]] → [[Mahayana]]
|-
| [[Visayans]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Philippine languages|Philippine]] → [[Visayan languages|Visayan]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Visayas]] ([[Philippines]])
| 35.7 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Visayan|title=Visayan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}} 16.5 million Cebuano, 6.54 million Hiligaynon, and 4.2 million Waray-Waray.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aklanon people|Aklanon]], [[Butuanon people|Butuanon]], [[Cebuano people|Cebuano]] (including [[Boholano people|Boholano]] and [[Eskaya people|Eskaya]]), [[Caluyanon language|Caluyanon]], [[Capiznon people|Capiznons]], [[Hiligaynon people|Hiligaynon]], [[Karay-a people|Karay-a]], [[Masbateño people|Masbateños]], [[Negrense]], [[Porohanon people|Porohanon]], [[Romblomanon people|Romblomanon]] (including [[Banton, Romblon|Bantoanons]]), [[Waray people|Waray]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Wa people|Wa]]
| [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] → [[Palaungic languages|Palaungic]] → [[Wa language|Wa]]
| [[Wa State]] ([[Myanmar]])
| 1.2 million{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}
| 
| [[Buddhism]], [[Animism]]
|-
| [[Walloons]]
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Romance languages|Romance]] → [[French language|French]] → [[Walloon language|Walloon]]&lt;ref group="note"&gt;Prior to the [[State reform in Belgium|mid-twentieth century]], the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of Belgium was French; this, paired with the fact that the Walloons are usually considered to be a French subgroup, have now resulted in the majority of them speaking only standard French.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Wallonia]] ([[Belgium]])
| 4.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wln|title=Walloon|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=9 March 2019}} {{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/fra|title=French|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=15 December 2018}} Figure taken by combining the Walloon population with the total first-language French users in Belgium (this latter number includes non-Walloon French speakers [[Francization of Brussels|residing]] in [[Brussels]].&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Waxiang people|Waxiang]]
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Chinese language|Chinese]] → [[Waxiang Chinese]]
| [[Hunan]] ([[China]])
| 0.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/wxa|title=Waxianghua|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=26 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Chinese folk religion]]
|-
| [[Welayta people|Welayta]]
| [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] → [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] → [[Wolaytta language|Wolayitta]]
| [[Wolayita Zone|Wolayitia]] ([[Ethiopia]])
| 1.7 million&lt;ref name="Ethiopia"/&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[P'ent'ay|Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Welsh people|Welsh]] 
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] → [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] → [[Welsh language|Welsh]]&lt;ref name="Celts" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Wales]] ([[United Kingdom]])
| 16.3 million&lt;ref name="Welsh names"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://gov.wales/docs/caecd/research/061102-welsh-diaspora-analysis-geography-welsh-names-en.pdf|title=The Welsh diaspora : Analysis of the geography of Welsh names|accessdate=26 June 2016|author=Richard Webber|work=Welsh Assembly}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| significant populations in [[Y Wladfa|Argentina]], [[Welsh Americans|the United States]], [[Welsh Canadians|Canada]], and [[Welsh Australians|Australia]].
| [[Christianity]] → [[Protestantism]]
|-
| [[Wolof people|Wolof]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Atlantic languages|Atlantic]] → [[Senegambian languages|Senegambian]] → [[Wolof language|Wolof]]
| [[Senegambia]] ([[Senegal]], [[The Gambia]])
| 5.9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{CIA_World_Factbook_link|sg|Senegal}} {{CIA_World_Factbook_link|ga|Gambia, The}} Figure taken using the percentages listed with the total populations. Wolof residing outside these countries not included.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Lebu people|Lebu]], along with [[African diaspora|numerous slave descendants]] such as [[Haratin]]s and [[Demographics of Martinique|Martinicans]], [[African Americans]], [[Afro-Bahamian]]s, [[Afro-Barbadian]]s, [[Afro-Brazilians]], [[Afro-Dominicans]], [[Afro-Puerto Ricans]], [[Afro-Haitians]], [[Afro-Saint Lucian]]s, [[Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians|Afro-Trinbagonians]], [[Americo-Liberians]], [[Belizean Creole people|Belizean Creoles]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Mouride|Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]
| [[Eastern Cape|Xhosaland]] ([[South Africa]])
| 7.3 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Xhosa|title=Xhosa|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Yakan people|Yakan]]
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] → [[Barito languages|Barito]] → [[Sama–Bajaw languages|Sama–Bajaw]] → [[Yakan language|Yakan]]
| [[Basilan]] ([[Philippines]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yakan|title=Yakan|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Yakö people|Yakö]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Cross River languages|Cross River]] → [[Yakö language|Yakö]]
| [[Yakurr Local Government]] ([[Nigeria]])
| 0.1 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yaz|title=Lokaa|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=14 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Yakuts]] 
| [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] → [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian]] → [[Yakut language|Yakut]] 
| [[Yakutia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Russia"/&gt;
| 
| [[Christianity]] → [[Russian Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]
|-
| [[Yao people (East Africa)|Yao]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Yao language|Yao]]
| [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Tanzania]] ([[Ruvuma Region|Ruvuma]] and [[Mtwara Region]]s)
| 2.6 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/yao|title=Yao|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=25 December 2018}} Total Yao users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Islam]]
|-
| [[Yi people|Yi]] 
| [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] → [[Loloish languages|Loloish]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[China]] ([[Yunnan]], [[Sichuan]], [[Guizhou]], [[Guangxi]])&lt;ref name="non-contiguous" group="note"/&gt;
| 7.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-yi.htm|title=The Yi ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Phù Lá people|Phù Lá]], [[Azha language|Azha]]
| [[Bimoism]]
|-
| [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] 
| [[Yorubaland]] ([[Nigeria]], [[Benin]])
| 20 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoruba|title=Yoruba|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Ogu people|Egun]], [[Ijesha]], [[Egba people|Egba]], [[Yewa clan|Yewa]], [[Igbomina]], [[Awori tribe|Awori]], [[Akoko]], [[Okun people|Okun]], [[Ana people|Ana]], [[Ekiti people|Ekiti]], [[Ilaje]], [[Oku people (Sierra Leone)|Oku]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Zaghawa people|Zaghawa]]
| [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] → [[Saharan languages|Saharan]] → [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]]
| [[Chad]], [[Sudan]]
| 0.3 million&lt;ref name="John A. Shoup III"/&gt;
|   
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zande people|Zande]] 
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Zande language|Zande]]
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[South Sudan]]
| 3.8 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zande|title=Zande|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Barambu language|Barambu]]
| [[Christianity]]
|-
| [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotecs]]
| [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]] → [[Zapotec languages|Zapotec]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Oaxaca]] ([[Mexico]])
| 0.5 million&lt;ref name="Mexico"/&gt;
| [[Ixtlán Zapotec|Ixtlán]]
| [[Christianity]] → [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]
|-
| [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]] 
| [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] → [[Tai languages|Tai]] → [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]]&lt;ref name="Language family" group="note"/&gt;
| [[Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region|Zhuangia]] ([[China]])
| 16.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-zhuang.htm|title=The Zhuang ethnic minority|website=[[China Internet Information Center]]|access-date=16 December 2018}} Chinese population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 
| [[Mo (religion)|Moism]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}

{{notelist}}

==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]

==See also==
* [[Uncontacted peoples]]
* [[Ethnic flag]]
* [[List of language families]]
* [[Lists of people by nationality]]
* [[Lists of active separatist movements]]
* [[Race (human categorization)]]
* [[Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world]]
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]</text>
    <sha1>9c38d338ef86c61c78ca8f305704e2fdf4ad86c5</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>46</id>
    <parentid>45</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T18:26:38Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Replaced content with "&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s...."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="2614" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| 
|  →  → 
| 
| 
| 
| → 
|-

{{notelist}}

==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]

==See also==
* [[Uncontacted peoples]]
* [[Ethnic flag]]
* [[List of language families]]
* [[Lists of people by nationality]]
* [[Lists of active separatist movements]]
* [[Race (human categorization)]]
* [[Y-chromosome haplogroups in populations of the world]]
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]</text>
    <sha1>d642256eebe7119c362b7c10a0672ca0842fedd7</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>47</id>
    <parentid>46</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T18:27:31Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="2318" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| 
|  →  → 
| 
| 
| 
| → 
|-

{{notelist}}

==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>25d35b244b8c6c06b5cb068713bacf0df479a845</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>48</id>
    <parentid>47</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T18:28:23Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="3903" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-

{{notelist}}

==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>72497692a236c2494af29f77d98e5233c014aa05</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>49</id>
    <parentid>48</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T18:29:27Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="4314" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}

{{notelist}}

==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>5cbd36280598df6c1ab988dbda35834563f1bed3</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>50</id>
    <parentid>49</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T18:30:02Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="4301" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;The following is a '''list of contemporary ethnic groups'''. There has been constant debate over the classification of [[ethnic group]]s. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be associated with shared [[ancestry]], [[history]], [[homeland]], [[language|language or dialect]] and [[cultural heritage]]; where the term "[[culture]]" specifically includes aspects such as [[religion]], [[mythology]] and [[ritual]], [[cuisine]], [[national dress|dressing (clothing) style]], and other factors.

By the nature of the concept, ethnic groups tend to be divided into subgroups, which may themselves be or not be identified as independent ethnic groups depending on the source consulted. 
{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Primary [[homeland]]
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Population (estimate)
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Majority (plurality) religion and sect
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>f00a0360f02c6050dd38d8e94ade8695117a33a2</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>List of ethnic groups</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>8</id>
  <revision>
    <id>51</id>
    <parentid>50</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T19:15:05Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="3916" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Average Religion
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>32f070ae4c44bbbf6e1cc3b3032d3786789bee5d</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>52</id>
    <parentid>51</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T19:24:33Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="3949" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:25%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Average Religion
! style="width:20%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>e7225012330799c4c153e6faa95541c244b129d0</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>53</id>
    <parentid>52</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T19:25:18Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="3949" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:20%" | Subgroups
! style="width:23%" | Average Religion
! style="width:22%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>9b2b29a6b0ba43bb7705ab79a5db6d29afcda413</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>54</id>
    <parentid>53</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-10T19:25:50Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="3949" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:20%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Average Religion
! style="width:22%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Abazins]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] → [[Abazgi]] → [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abazinia]] ([[Russia]])
| 0.1 million
| significant populations in [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]] and [[Ukraine]] 
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni]]
|-
| [[Abkhazians]] 
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] → [[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]] → [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Abkhazia]]&lt;ref name="Circassian genocide" group="note"&gt;Following the [[Caucasian War]], the majority of Circassians and Abkhazians [[Circassian genocide|were deported]] to Turkey.&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.2 million&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/abk|title=Abkhaz|website=[[Ethnologue]]|accessdate=24 November 2018}} Total Abkhaz users in all countries.&lt;/ref&gt;
|
| [[Christianity]] → [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
| [[Acehnese people|Acehnese]] 
| [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] → [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] → [[Acehnese language|Acehnese]]
| [[Aceh]] ([[Indonesia]])
| 4.1 million&lt;ref name="Indonesia"&gt;{{cite book|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|title=Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010|year=2011|isbn=978-979-064-417-5|url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|access-date=24 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html|archive-date=10 July 2017|url-status=dead}} Indonesian population only.&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Aneuk Jamee people|Aneuk Jamee]]
| [[Islam]] → [[Sunni Islam]]
|-
| [[Zulu people|Zulu]]
| [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] → [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] → [[Nguni languages|Nguni]] → [[Zulu language|Zulu]]
| [[KwaZulu-Natal]] ([[South Africa]])
| 9 million&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zulu|title=Zulu|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|accessdate=8 March 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| [[Northern Ndebele people|Northern Ndebele]]
| [[Christianity]]
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>715185237e173a7d7a6977e4072f6d18dbe2874c</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>55</id>
    <parentid>54</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-11T01:41:30Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>99.158.136.91</username>
      <id>0</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="2693" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


{{Dynamic list}}

==Ethnic groups==
{{See also|List of languages by number of native speakers}}
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:20%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Average Religion
! style="width:22%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Ahema]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Akrisso]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ama]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Amos Vi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Annia]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[AUnnu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bacazins]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>86e74af4d809a97231ac3ef8badbe6725f969436</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>56</id>
    <parentid>55</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-11T13:09:39Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="2616" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


==Ethnic groups==
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:20%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Average Religion
! style="width:22%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Ahema]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Akrisso]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ama]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Amos Vi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Annia]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[AUnnu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bacazins]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>5d26fc1289bc1e50e87f8c1f44a3a3b66e0039c3</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>57</id>
    <parentid>56</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-11T13:47:59Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="12109" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


==Ethnic groups==
The groups commonly identified as "ethnic groups" (as opposed to [[ethno-linguistic]] phyla, national groups, [[racial group]]s or similar). Smaller groups (i.e. less than 100,000) are often [[List of indigenous peoples|indigenous peoples]] and are not listed.
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:20%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Average Religion
! style="width:22%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Ahema]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Akrisso]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ama]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Amos Vi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Annia]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[AUnnu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bacazins]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bahen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bka]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Boro]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bylun]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ..
|-
| [[Cadeza]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Carafe]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Caromino]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Copoluc]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Crotno]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Czed]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Da-Weme]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Degg]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Denote]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Denur]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Deschkl]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Domipen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Eali]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Eggedo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Egolomi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Einap]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Fahros]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Farrahke]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Fiego]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Gamuni]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Garadse]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Gawli]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Geflummnen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Genilo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Hashopo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Hen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ills]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Inza]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Iqwo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Jacilo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Jarjic]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Jasup]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kammas]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kham]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kiano]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kocua]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kumo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Limna]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Lin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Logors]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Los]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Losin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Lua]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Mediu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Midgeika]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Mizizu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Myla]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Natoso]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ne'ero]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Noosum]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Orre]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Oures]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[PaUnnu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Peulo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pionko]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pom]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pue]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pyzne]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Qen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Quolo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ra]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Resmel]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Rin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Rubo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Saamno]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Saev]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Surino]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Suronniko]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Surri]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Tastof]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Tuone]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Unicaro]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Uu-Kazah]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Venero]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Vinne]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Visero]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Wasmin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Wgo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Wi Ronoi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Yisumoo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Yyehlem]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Zeneer]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
    <sha1>49e1e756d37cef344990dfa133654460f7a048db</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>83</id>
    <parentid>57</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:45:22Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="12031" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES]] --&gt;This is a list of ''ethnic groups''. To be qualified as an ethnic group, groups must have a shared [[history]], [[homeland]], and [[cultural heritage]] [[language|historical language]] and [[ancestry]]; additionally, current or former shared [[religion]], [[festivals]], [[clothing]], or [[cuisine]] is found among most ethnicities.


==Ethnic groups==
This list contains all major ethnic groups. While there are 1,372 known ethnic groups worldwide, only ones with a significant presence in history, geography, or politics are included
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! style="width:8%"  | Name
! style="width:25%" |[[Native language]] (primary language)
! style="width:12%" | Homeland
! style="width:10%" data-sort-type="number" | Average Population
! style="width:20%" | Subgroups
! style="width:20%" | Primary Religion
! style="width:22%" | Shape Type
|-
| [[Ahema]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Akrisso]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ama]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Amos Vi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Annia]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[AUnnu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bacazins]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bahen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bka]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Boro]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Bylun]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ..
|-
| [[Cadeza]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Carafe]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Caromino]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Copoluc]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Crotno]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Czed]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Da-Weme]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Degg]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Denote]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Denur]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Deschkl]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Domipen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Eali]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Eggedo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Egolomi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Einap]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Fahros]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Farrahke]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Fiego]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Gamuni]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Garadse]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Gawli]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Geflummnen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Genilo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Hashopo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Hen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ills]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Inza]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Iqwo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Jacilo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Jarjic]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Jasup]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kammas]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kham]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kiano]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kocua]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Kumo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Limna]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Lin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Logors]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Los]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Losin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Lua]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Mediu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Midgeika]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Mizizu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Myla]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Natoso]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ne'ero]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Noosum]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Orre]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Oures]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[PaUnnu]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Peulo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pionko]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pom]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pue]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Pyzne]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Qen]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Quolo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Ra]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Resmel]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Rin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Rubo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Saamno]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Saev]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Surino]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Suronniko]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Surri]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Tastof]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Tuone]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Unicaro]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Uu-Kazah]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Venero]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Vinne]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Visero]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Wasmin]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Wgo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Wi Ronoi]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Yisumoo]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Yyehlem]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|-
| [[Zeneer]]
| [[...]] → [[...]] → [[...]]
| [[...]] ([[...]])
| ...
| ... 
| [[...]] → [[...]]
| ...
|}


==Lists of ethnic groups==
;by status
* [[List of indigenous peoples]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

;regional lists
* [[List of ethnic groups in Russia]]
* [[Asian people]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Burma]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in China]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
** [[Demographics of Sindh]]
** [[South Asian ethnic groups]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
*** [[Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
** [[List of aboriginal ethnic groups in Taiwan]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
* [[African people]]
** [[Indigenous people of Africa]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Chad]]
** [[Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Rivers State]]
** [[List of ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
* [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European people]]
* [[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
* [[List of Indigenous Australian group names]]</text>
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  <title>Bahen</title>
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    <comment>Created page with "{{Infobox ethnic group | group = Arabs&lt;!-- WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES --&gt; | native_name = {{lang|ar|عَرَبٌ}} ({{lang|ar-Latn|'arab}}) {{in lang|ar}} | native_name_lang = ar&lt;..."</comment>
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| group = Arabs&lt;!-- [[WP:NOETHNICGALLERIES --&gt;
| native_name = {{lang|ar|عَرَبٌ}} ({{lang|ar-Latn|'arab}}) {{in lang|ar}}
| native_name_lang = ar&lt;!-- ethnolinguistic/ethnic group [[Talk:Arabs#Proposal|under discussion]] --&gt;
| population = {{Circa|430 million}} (2011 est.)&lt;ref name="Nydell"&gt;Margaret Kleffner Nydell [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNoiieefqAcC&amp;printsec Understanding Arabs: A Guide For Modern Times], Intercultural Press, 2005, {{ISBN|1931930252}}, page xxiii, 14&lt;/ref&gt;
| popplace = {{flag|Arab League}}
| pop1 = 430,000,000&lt;ref&gt;total population 450 million, [[CIA Factbook]] estimates an Arab population of 450 million, see article text.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=World Arabic Language Day {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/events/prizes-and-celebrations/celebrations/international-days/world-arabic-language-day/|website=Unesco.org|accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!-- --&gt;| region2 = {{flag|Brazil}}
| pop2 = Estimated 12–13 million with at least partial ancestry&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|accessdate=2019-04-28|first=Marina |last=Sarruf |title=Brazil - Brasil - BRAZZIL - News from Brazil - Arabs: They are 12 Million in Brazil - Brazilian Immigration - September 2004|url=http://www.brazzil.com/2004/html/articles/sep04/p118sep04.htm|website=www.brazzil.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |first1=Larry |last1=Luxner |first2=Douglas |last2=Engle |title=The Arabs of Brazil|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200505/the.arabs.of.brazil.htm|date=September–October 2005 |website=Aramco World}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|The Brazilian and Lebanese governments claim 7 million Lebanese, with 4 million Syrians. A 2008 study done by [[IGBE]] covering the states of Amazonas, Paraíba, São Paolo, Rio Grande de Sol, Mato Grosso, and Disitro Federal showed that 0.9% or 2 million white Brazilians claimed any Middle Eastern ancestry&lt;ref&gt;http://biblioteca.ibge.gov.br/visualizacao/livros/liv63405.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| region3 = {{flag|France}}
| pop3 = 3.3&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|accessdate=2019-01-30|title=France's crisis of national identity|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/frances-crisis-of-national-identity-1826942.html|date=25 November 2009|website=The Independent}}&lt;/ref&gt; to 5.5&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|accessdate=2019-01-30|title=To count or not to count|url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2009/03/26/to-count-or-not-to-count|newspaper=The Economist|date=26 March 2009|issn=0013-0613}}&lt;/ref&gt; million people of [[Maghreb|North African]] (Arab or [[Berbers|Berber]]) descent&lt;ref name="variety.com"&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.variety.com/article/VR1117979837.html?categoryid=2879&amp;cs=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221202920/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117979837.html?categoryid=2879&amp;cs=1 |archive-date=21 February 2010 |title=French-Arabs battle stereotypes - Entertainment News, French Cinema, Media |publisher=Variety |date=29 January 2008 |accessdate=22 August 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region4 = {{flag|Indonesia}}
| pop4= {{plainlist|
*Estimated 4–5 million of at least partial Arab ancestry&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=The world's successful diasporas |url=http://www.worldbusinesslive.com/research/article/648273/the-worlds-successful-diasporas/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080401110233/http://www.worldbusinesslive.com/research/article/648273/the-worlds-successful-diasporas/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-04-01 |accessdate=2019-04-25 |publisher=World Business |date=2007-04-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Hadramaut dan Para Kapiten Arab"&gt;{{cite web|last=Shihab|first=Alwi|url=http://alwishahab.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/hadramaut-dan-para-kapiten-arab/|title=Hadramaut dan Para Kapiten Arab|date=2003-12-21|publisher=Republika|accessdate=2015-03-25|author-link=Alwi Shihab}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*87,227 Arab Indonesians in 2005 census&lt;ref name="Suryadinata2008"&gt;{{cite book|author=Leo Suryadinata|title=Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UFNKQcvGNSAC&amp;pg=PA29|year=2008|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-835-1|page=29}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*1.2 million of [[Sayyid]] descent according to [[Al-Rabithah al-Alawiyyah]]&lt;ref name="MusliModerat 2017"&gt;{{cite web |title=Mengenal Keturunan Nabi Muhammad SAW di Indonesia |url=http://www.muslimoderat.net/2017/01/mengenal-keturunan-nabi-muhammad-saw-di.html |website=Berita Berimbang Untuk Muslim Nusantara |language=Indonesian |publisher=MusliModerat |accessdate=2019-04-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Tirto"&gt;{{cite web |last1=Subandoyo |first1=Arbi |title=Mereka yang Habib dan yang Bukan Habib |url= https://tirto.id/mereka-yang-habib-dan-yang-bukan-habib-chde |language=Indonesian |website=Tirto.Id |accessdate=2019-04-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
*}}
| region5 = {{flag|Turkey}}
| pop5 = 5,000,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=(UNHCR)|first1=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|title=UNHCR Syria Regional Refugee Response|url=http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/country.php?id=224|website=UNHCR Syria Regional Refugee Response|language=en|access-date=22 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305121532/http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/country.php?id=224|archive-date=5 March 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=iraqisinturkey&gt;{{cite web|url=http://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/11298|title=The Iraqi Refugee Crisis and Turkey: a Legal Outlook|year=2009|last=Kaya|first=Ibrahim|website=cadmus.eui.eu|accessdate=25 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="www.washingtoninstitute.org"&gt;{{cite web|title=The Impact of Syrian Refugees on Turkey|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-impact-of-syrian-refugees-on-turkey|website=www.washingtoninstitute.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="www.aljazeera.com"&gt;{{cite web|title=Turkey's demographic challenge|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html|website=www.aljazeera.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="UNHCR-Turkey"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/country.php?id=224|title=UNHCR Syria Regional Refugee Response/ Turkey|author=|date=31 December 2015|work=[[UNHCR]]|accessdate=17 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180305121532/http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/country.php?id=224|archive-date=5 March 2018|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region6 = {{flag|Argentina}}
| pop6 = 4,500,000 at least partial ancestry&lt;ref name="Fearab.org.ar"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.fearab.org.ar/inmigracion_sirio_libanesa_en_argentina.php |title=Inmigración sirio-libanesa en Argentina |language=es |publisher=Fearab.org.ar |accessdate=13 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620004217/http://www.fearab.org.ar/inmigracion_sirio_libanesa_en_argentina.php |archivedate=20 June 2010 |df=dmy }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region7 = {{flag|United States}}
| pop7 = 3,700,000&lt;ref name="aaiusa.org"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.aaiusa.org/demographics|title=Demographics|publisher=Arab American Institute|accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region8 = {{flag|Israel}}
| pop8 = 1,700,000&lt;ref name="arab-colpal"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.cbs.gov.il/www/hodaot2013n/11_13_097e.pdf|title=65th Independence Day – More than 8 Million Residents in the State of Israel |website=Cbs.gov.il|accessdate=18 December 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region9 = {{flag|Venezuela}}
| pop9 = 1,600,000&lt;ref name="thedailybeast.com"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/09/15/abdel-el-zabayar-from-parliament-to-the-frontlines.html|title=Abdel el-Zabayar: From Parliament to the Frontlines|work=The Daily Beast}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region10 = {{flag|Colombia}}
| pop10 = 1,500,000&lt;ref name="Las mil y una historias"&gt;{{cite web|title= Las mil y una historias|url= http://www.semana.com/especiales/articulo/las-mil-historias/68653-3|publisher= semana.com|year= 2004|language= Spanish}}There is an estimated population of 1,500,000 Arabs in Colombia.&lt;/ref&gt;
| region11 = {{flag|Iran}}
| pop11 = 1,500,000&lt;ref name="Iran"&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |title=Iran |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203093100/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |archivedate=3 February 2012 |accessdate=3 August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region12 = {{flag|Mexico}}
| pop12 = 1,500,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Arabs Making Their Mark in Latin America: Generations of Immigrants in Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico {{!}} Al Jadid Magazine|url=http://www.aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrants-colombia-venezuela-and-mexico|website=www.aljadid.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Ben Cahoon"&gt;{{cite web|author=Ben Cahoon |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Mexico.htm |title=World Statesmen.org |publisher=World Statesmen.org |accessdate=17 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region13 = {{flag|Chad}}
| pop13 = 1,536,000 (est.)&lt;ref name="chad"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cd.html |title=Chad |accessdate=3 April 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region14 = {{flag|Spain}}
| pop14 = 1,350,000&lt;ref name="europapress-18-millones"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.europapress.es/sociedad/noticia-musulmanes-espana-superan-18-millones-20150330182141.html|title=Los musulmanes en España superan los 1,8 millones|language=es|date=30 March 2015|website=www.europapress.es|accessdate=25 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="alertadigital-16-millones"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.alertadigital.com/2012/10/09/la-cifra-de-musulmanes-en-espana-casi-alcanza-los-16-millones-de-los-que-casi-un-tercio-viven-en-cataluna/|title=La cifra de musulmanes en España alcanza los 1,6 millones, de los que casi un tercio viven en Cataluña|language=es|date=9 October 2012|author=Redaction|website=www.alertadigital.com|accessdate=25 April 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region15 = {{flag|Germany}}
| pop15 = 1,155,390&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1221/umfrage/anzahl-der-auslaender-in-deutschland-nach-herkunftsland/|title=Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland in den Jahren 2015 und 2016|work=statista|language=German}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/Thematisch/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/AuslaendBevoelkerung2010200167004.pdf?__blob=publicationFile|title=Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit|work=Statistisches Bundesamt|language=German|date=20 June 2017|access-date=11 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region16 = {{flag|Chile}}
| pop16 = 800,000&lt;ref name="aurora-israel.co.il"&gt;{{in lang|es}} [http://www.aurora-israel.co.il/articulos/israel/Titulares/24782/ En Chile viven unas 700.000 personas de origen árabe y de ellas 500.000 son descendientes de emigrantes palestinos que llegaron a comienzos del siglo pasado y que constituyen la comunidad de ese origen más grande fuera del mundo árabe.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318054736/http://www.aurora-israel.co.il/articulos/israel/Titulares/24782/ |date=18 March 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="ibtimes.com"&gt;{{cite web|title=Arabs In The Andes? Chile, The Unlikely Long-Term Home Of A Large Palestinian Community|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/arabs-andes-chile-unlikely-long-term-home-large-palestinian-community-1449718|website=International Business Times|date=31 October 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Adnkronos.com"&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www1.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2050534508 |title=Chile: Palestinian refugees arrive to warm welcome |publisher=Adnkronos.com |date=7 April 2003 |accessdate=17 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919202702/http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/CultureAndMedia/?id=1.0.2050534508 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Laventana.casa.cult.cu"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://laventana.casa.cult.cu/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=514|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722073846/http://laventana.casa.cult.cu/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=514|archivedate=22 July 2009 |title=500,000 descendientes de primera y segunda generación de palestinos en Chile |publisher=Laventana.casa.cult.cu |accessdate=17 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region17 = {{flag|Canada}}
| pop17 = 750,925&lt;ref name="canadianarabinstitute.org"&gt;{{cite web|title=Canadian Arab Institute :: 750,925 Canadians Hail from Arab Lands|url=http://www.canadianarabinstitute.org/publications/reports/750925-canadians-hail-arab-lands/|website=www.canadianarabinstitute.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region18 = {{flag|Italy}}
| pop18 = 680,000&lt;ref name="ISTAT"&gt;{{cite web|last1=Dati ISTAT 2016|first1=counting only immigrants from the [[Arab world]]|title=Cittadini stranieri in Italia - 2016|url=http://www.tuttitalia.it/statistiche/cittadini-stranieri-2016/|website=tuttitalia.it}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region19 = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
| pop19 = 500,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The British Arab|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/CONTENT/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|publisher=National Association of British Arabs|accessdate=17 April 2012|author=Anthony McRoy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103180941/http://www.naba.org.uk/Content/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm|archive-date=3 January 2015|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region20 = {{flag|Australia}}
| pop20 = 500,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=australianarab.org/about-us |url=http://australianarab.org/about-us |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030002545/http://australianarab.org/about-us |archivedate=30 October 2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region21 = {{flag|Ecuador}}
| pop21 = 250,000 &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=La emigración árabe a El Ecuador |url= http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ANQE/article/viewFile/ANQE9797110057A/3864|df= }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region22 = {{flag|Honduras}}
| pop22 = 275,000 &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/the.arabs.of.honduras.htm |title=The Arabs of Honduras |publisher=Saudi Aramco World |accessdate=8 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009182011/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200104/the.arabs.of.honduras.htm |archive-date=9 October 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="The Arabs of Honduras"&gt;{{cite web|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200104/the.arabs.of.honduras.htm |title=The Arabs of Honduras |publisher=Saudiaramcoworld.com |date=27 June 1936 |accessdate=17 September 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region23 = {{flag|Belgium}}
| pop23 = 800,000 (600,000 from Morocco){{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
| region24 = {{flag|Netherlands}}
| pop24 = 480,000–613,800&lt;ref&gt;{{citation|url=http://www.media-citizenship.eu/images/stories/pdf/Amsterdam_national_focus_group_report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228151603/http://www.media-citizenship.eu/images/stories/pdf/Amsterdam_national_focus_group_report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 February 2019 |title=Dutch media perceived as much more biased than Arabic media – Media &amp; Citizenship Report conducted by University of Utrecht |periodical=Utrecht University |date=10 September 2010 |accessdate=29 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region25 = {{flag|Sweden}}
| pop25 = 425,000{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}
| region26 = {{flag|Denmark}}
| pop26 = 121,000{{citation needed|date=April 2018}}
| region27 = {{flag|El Salvador}}
| pop27 = More than 100,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://newsvideo.su/video/10798241|title=Why So Many Palestinians Live In El Salvador}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=http://theidentitychef.com/2009/09/06/lebanese-diaspora-worldwide-geographical-distribution|title=Lebanese Diaspora Worldwide Geographical Distribution}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Zielger|first1=Matthew|title=El Salvador: Central American Palestine of the West?|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Culture/Art/2004/Apr-27/91857-el-salvador-central-american-palestine-of-the-west.ashx#axzz3EZpwYUKb|website=The Daily Star|accessdate=27 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://latinx.com/discover/aj-plus-the-palestinians-of-el-salvador/ |title=AJ Plus: The Palestinians of El Salvador |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113091131/https://latinx.com/discover/aj-plus-the-palestinians-of-el-salvador/ |archive-date=13 November 2019 |url-status=dead |access-date=13 November 2019 }} }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2004-03-21-0403210538-story,amp.html|title=El Salvador vote divides 2 Arab clans}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| region28 = {{flag|Japan}}
| pop28 = less than 100,000&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|accessdate=2019-08-26|title=Muslim population in Japan increases with Islamic demands|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/asia/2015/05/31/muslim-population-in-japan-increases-with-islamic-demands|website=DailySabah}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| languages = [[Arabic]]
| rels = Predominantly: [[Islam]] &lt;br /&gt;([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]{{·}}[[Shia Islam|Shia]]{{·}}[[Sufism|Sufi]]{{·}}[[Ibadi]]{{·}}[[Alawite]])&lt;br /&gt;Sizable minority: [[Christianity]]  &lt;br /&gt;([[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]]{{·}}[[Greek Catholic]])&lt;br /&gt;Smaller minority: Other monotheistic religions ([[Druze]]{{·}}[[Bahá'í Faith]])&lt;br /&gt;Historically: [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|Pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism]]
| related = Other [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]-speaking peoples, especially [[Semitic people]]s such as [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Jews]], [[Amhara people|Amharas]] and [[Tigrayans]]&lt;ref name="evolutsioon"&gt;{{cite journal|pmid=15300852|url=http://evolutsioon.ut.ee/publications/Shen2004.pdf|year=2004|last1=Shen|first1=P|last2=Lavi|first2=T|last3=Kivisild|first3=T|last4=Chou|first4=V|last5=Sengun|first5=D|last6=Gefel|first6=D|last7=Shpirer|first7=I|last8=Woolf|first8=E|last9=Hillel|first9=J|title=Reconstruction of patrilineages and matrilineages of Samaritans and other Israeli populations from Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA sequence variation|volume=24|issue=3|pages=248–60|doi=10.1002/humu.20077|journal=Human Mutation}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="evolutsioon" /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity|first= Nicholas|last= Wade|date=9 June 2010|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10jews.html?_r=0|work=New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s004390000426|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Nebel-HG-00-IPArabs.pdf|title=High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews|year=2000|last1=Nebel|first1=Almut|last2=Filon|first2=Dvora|last3=Weiss|first3=Deborah A.|last4=Weale|first4=Michael|last5=Faerman|first5=Marina|last6=Oppenheim|first6=Ariella|last7=Thomas|first7=Mark G.|journal=Human Genetics|volume=107|issue=6|pages=630–41|pmid=11153918}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="sciencedaily"&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/05/000509003653.htm |title=Jews Are The Genetic Brothers Of Palestinians, Syrians, And Lebanese |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=9 May 2000 |access-date=12 April 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Abraham 2010"&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=3032072|year=2010|last1=Atzmon|first1=G|last2=Hao|first2=L|last3=Pe'Er|first3=I|last4=Velez|first4=C|last5=Pearlman|first5=A|last6=Palamara|first6=PF|last7=Morrow|first7=B|last8=Friedman|first8=E|last9=Oddoux|first9=C|title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry|volume=86|issue=6|pages=850–59|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|pmid=20560205}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name="Tadmouri2014"/&gt;
| footnotes = {{smallsup|a}} Arab ethnicity should not be confused with non-Arab ethnicities that are also native to the Arab world.&lt;ref name="Tadmouri2014"/&gt;&lt;br /&gt;{{smallsup|b}} Not all Arabs are Muslims and not all Muslims are Arabs. An Arab can follow any religion or irreligion.&lt;br /&gt;{{smallsup|c}} [[Arab identity]] is defined independently of religious identity.
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      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
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== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
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<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Denur</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>29</id>
  <revision>
    <id>87</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:50:23Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
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    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Deschkl</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>30</id>
  <revision>
    <id>88</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:51:08Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Domipen</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>31</id>
  <revision>
    <id>89</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:52:03Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Eali</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>32</id>
  <revision>
    <id>90</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:52:46Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Eggedo</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>33</id>
  <revision>
    <id>91</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:53:12Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Egolomi</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>34</id>
  <revision>
    <id>92</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:53:56Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Einap</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>35</id>
  <revision>
    <id>93</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:54:54Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Fahros</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>36</id>
  <revision>
    <id>94</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:55:08Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Kei</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>2</id>
  <revision>
    <id>95</id>
    <parentid>43</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:58:40Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5721" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Kei's axis]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, causing the [[season]]s of Kei. [[Gravity|Gravitational interactions]] between Kei and Kos cause [[tide]]s, stabilize Kei's axial orientation, and slows the rotation. Peter are you happy now. Kei is the only [[terrestrial]] planet in the solar system and the second densest body.


== Name and etymology ==

== History ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Elemental composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetism ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}


=== Seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Ecology ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>deb2825c301ab2c9a2577b74eafb294f548ef81a</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>98</id>
    <parentid>95</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:00:17Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5696" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

[[#Axial tilt and seasons|Kei's axis]] is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, causing the [[season]]s of Kei. [[Gravity|Gravitational interactions]] between Kei and Kos cause [[tide]]s, stabilize Kei's axial orientation, and slows the rotation. Kei is the only [[terrestrial]] planet in the solar system and the second densest body.


== Name and etymology ==

== History ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Elemental composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetism ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}


=== Seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Ecology ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>5c602e1111a74c00d3129530c4764b43d8eb86eb</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Farrahke</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>37</id>
  <revision>
    <id>96</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:59:11Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Fiego</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>38</id>
  <revision>
    <id>97</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T15:59:37Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Gamuni</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>39</id>
  <revision>
    <id>99</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:02:19Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200310191505|51">
  <title>Garadse</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>40</id>
  <revision>
    <id>100</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:04:13Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Gawli</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>41</id>
  <revision>
    <id>101</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:08:28Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Geflummnen</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>42</id>
  <revision>
    <id>102</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:10:26Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Genilo</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>43</id>
  <revision>
    <id>103</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:12:54Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Hashopo</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>44</id>
  <revision>
    <id>104</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:13:44Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <comment>Created page with "== Physical Characteristics ==  == History ==  == Culture ==  ==== Language ====  ==== Literature ====  ==== Art ====  ==== Cuisine ====  ==== Clothing ====  ==== Folklore ===..."</comment>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>24a90116cfacc4723479acabbc015975485f08db</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Kei</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>2</id>
  <revision>
    <id>105</id>
    <parentid>98</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T16:15:12Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5355" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.


== Name and etymology ==

== History ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Elemental composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetism ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}


=== Seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Ecology ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>21d38ec16058e4d94182c5710135eb29e256e3c2</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>106</id>
    <parentid>105</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T18:17:24Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="5755" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

Kei's [[outer crust]] is divided into many fields, often called [[plates]]. These plates migrate across the surface over a period of millions of years. Roughly 27% of the surface is land, while the remaining 73% is water, predominantly oceans and lakes alongside other sources. The poles are covered in ice, with the north pole having the [[Freco ice sheet]], and the south, the [[Southern floats]]


== Name and etymology ==

== History ==
{{Main|History of Earth}}

=== Formation ===


=== Geological history ===

=== Life and evolution ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis|Evolutionary history of life}}


=== Future ===
{{Main|Future of Earth}}


== Physical characteristics&lt;!--linked from 'Earth physical characteristics tables'--&gt; ==


=== Elemental composition ===
{{See also|Abundance of elements on Earth}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 2em;"

!rowspan="2"|Compound
!rowspan="2"|Formula
!colspan="2"|Composition
|-
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Continental
!style="font-size: smaller;"|Oceanic
|-
|[[silica]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|SiO2}}
|style="text-align: right;"|60.6%
|style="text-align: right;"|48.6%
|-
|[[Aluminum oxide|alumina]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Al2O3}}
|style="text-align: right;"|15.9%
|style="text-align: right;"|16.5%
|-
|[[Calcium oxide|lime]]
|style="text-align: center;"|CaO
|style="text-align: right;"|6.41%
|style="text-align: right;"|12.3%
|-
|[[Magnesium oxide|magnesia]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MgO
|style="text-align: right;"|4.66%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.8%
|-
|[[iron oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|FeO&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;
|style="text-align: right;"|6.71%
|style="text-align: right;"|6.2%
|-
|[[sodium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|Na2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|3.07%
|style="text-align: right;"|2.6%
|-
|[[potassium oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|{{chem2|K2O}}
|style="text-align: right;"|1.81%
|style="text-align: right;"|0.4%
|-
|[[titanium dioxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|TiO2}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.72%
| style="text-align: right;" |1.4%
|-
|[[phosphorus pentoxide]]
| style="text-align: center;" |{{chem2|P2O5}}
| style="text-align: right;" |0.13%
| style="text-align: right;" |0.3%
|-
|[[Manganese(II) oxide|manganese oxide]]
|style="text-align: center;"|MnO
|style="text-align: right;"|0.10%
|style="text-align: right;"|1.4%
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
! style="text-align: right;" |100.1%
! style="text-align: right;" |99.9%
|}


=== Surface ===
{{Main|Earth's crust|Lithosphere|Hydrosphere|Landform|Extreme points of Earth}}

=== Tectonic plates ===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
|colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;"|[[File:Tectonic plates (empty).svg|frameless|alt=Shows the extent and boundaries of tectonic plates, with superimposed outlines of the continents they support]]
|-
!Plate name
!Area&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style="font-size: smaller;"&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#fee6aa|[[Pacific Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"|103.3
|-
| {{legend|#fb9a7a|[[African Plate]]&lt;ref group="n" name="jaes41_3_379" /&gt;}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 78.0
|-
| {{legend|#ac8d7f|[[North American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 75.9
|-
| {{legend|#7fa172|[[Eurasian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 67.8
|-
| {{legend|#8a9dbe|[[Antarctic Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 60.9
|-
| {{legend|#fcb482|[[Indo-Australian Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 47.2
|-
| {{legend|#ad82b0|[[South American Plate]]}} ||style="text-align: center;"| 43.6
|}
{{Main|Plate tectonics}}


=== Atmosphere ===
{{Main|Atmosphere of Earth}}

==== Climate ====
{{Main|Weather|Climate}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 220
| image1 = Felix from ISS 03 sept 2007 1138Z.jpg
| caption1 = [[Hurricane Felix]] seen from low Earth orbit, September 2007
| image2 = Pressure ridges Scott Base lrg.jpg
| caption2 = [[Lenticular cloud]] over an ice [[Pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridge]] near [[Mount Discovery]], [[Antarctica]], November 2013
| image3 = 3D-Clouds.jpg
| caption3 = Massive clouds above the [[Mojave Desert]], February 2016
}}

=== Hydrosphere ===
{{Main|Hydrosphere}}

=== Gravitational field ===
{{Main|Gravity of Earth}}


=== Magnetism ===
{{Main|Earth's magnetic field}}


==== Magnetosphere ====
{{Main|Magnetosphere}}


== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===
{{Main|Earth's rotation}}


=== Seasons ===
{{Main|Axial tilt#Earth}}

== Habitability ==


=== Ecology ===
{{Main|Biosphere}}


=== Natural resources ===
{{Main|Natural resource|Land use}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;"

|-
!Land use
!Mha
|-
| Cropland
|style="text-align:center"| 1,510–1,611
|-
| Pastures
|style="text-align:center"| 2,500–3,410
|-
| Natural forests
|style="text-align:center"| 3,143–3,871
|-
| Planted forests
|style="text-align:center"| 126–215
|-
| Urban areas
|style="text-align:center"| 66–351
|-
| Unused, productive land
|style="text-align:center"| 356–445
|}

=== Natural and environmental hazards ===
[[File:Pavlof2014iss.jpg|thumb|left|A volcano injecting hot ash into the atmosphere]]

== Human geography ==

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==
{{Main|Earth in culture}}

== See Also ==</text>
    <sha1>ea35db971fe88333508bd8a42a1f96606f8e789a</sha1>
  </revision>
  <revision>
    <id>107</id>
    <parentid>106</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T18:38:10Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="1039" xml:space="preserve">'''Kei''' is the second [[planet]] in the solar system and the only [[astronomical body]] proven to harbor [[life]]. Kei's [[gravity]] interacts with many other bodies, most notably being [[Kos]], the planet's only moon. Geological scanning suggests Kei first formed 3.48 billion years ago. Kei's orbital period is 401.166 days long, with the planet orbiting around it's axis once every 22.3156 hours to complete a day.

Kei's [[outer crust]] is divided into many fields, often called [[plates]]. These plates migrate across the surface over a period of millions of years. This is due to a convecting [[mantle]]. Roughly 27% of the surface is land, while the remaining 73% is water, predominantly oceans and lakes alongside other sources. The poles are covered in the icy fields of the [[Freco ice sheet]] and the [[Southern floats]].

Kei's [[axial tilt]] of 28% causes [[seasons]] over most of the planet. Additionally, interactions with the moon, alongside slight variations in orbit, can cause other changes in temperature and weather.</text>
    <sha1>fb58d0132099d3c8ef835439819ea220fd30e09e</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Amos Vi</title>
  <ns>0</ns>
  <id>12</id>
  <revision>
    <id>108</id>
    <parentid>67</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T18:38:28Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
      <id>30606937</id>
    </contributor>
    <model>wikitext</model>
    <format>text/x-wiki</format>
    <text bytes="968" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            =  &lt;!-- (defaults to {{PAGENAME}}) --&gt;
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 

| total            =  &lt;!-- total population worldwide --&gt;
| total_year       =  &lt;!-- year of total population --&gt;
| total_source     =  &lt;!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --&gt;
| total_ref        =  &lt;!-- references supporting total population --&gt;
| genealogy        = 
| regions          =  &lt;!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --&gt;

| languages        =
| philosophies     = 
| religions        =
| related_groups   = 
| footnotes        = 
}}

== Physical Characteristics ==

== History ==

== Culture ==

==== Language ====

==== Literature ====

==== Art ====

==== Cuisine ====

==== Clothing ====

==== Folklore ====

==== Architecture ====

==== Relations ====

== Religion ==

== Subgroups ==

== Demographics ==</text>
    <sha1>2af16e8519393e55891f9a3d5855fb24f36765e7</sha1>
  </revision>
</page>
<page arvcontinue="20200312160828|101">
  <title>Template:Infobox ethnic group</title>
  <ns>10</ns>
  <id>45</id>
  <revision>
    <id>109</id>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T18:38:42Z</timestamp>
    <contributor>
      <username>Leafy838</username>
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| group            =  &lt;!-- (defaults to {{PAGENAME}}) --&gt;
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 

| total            =  &lt;!-- total population worldwide --&gt;
| total_year       =  &lt;!-- year of total population --&gt;
| total_source     =  &lt;!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --&gt;
| total_ref        =  &lt;!-- references supporting total population --&gt;
| genealogy        = 
| regions          =  &lt;!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --&gt;

| languages        =
| philosophies     = 
| religions        =
| related_groups   = 
| footnotes        = 
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| group            =  &lt;!-- (defaults to {{PAGENAME}}) --&gt;
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 

| total            =  &lt;!-- total population worldwide --&gt;
| total_year       =  &lt;!-- year of total population --&gt;
| total_source     =  &lt;!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --&gt;
| total_ref        =  &lt;!-- references supporting total population --&gt;
| genealogy        = 
| regions          =  &lt;!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --&gt;

| languages        =
| philosophies     = 
| religions        =
| related_groups   = 
| footnotes        =</text>
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| group            =  &lt;!-- (defaults to {{PAGENAME}}) --&gt;
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 

| total            =  &lt;!-- total population worldwide --&gt;
| total_year       =  &lt;!-- year of total population --&gt;
| total_source     =  &lt;!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --&gt;
| total_ref        =  &lt;!-- references supporting total population --&gt;
| genealogy        = 
| regions          =  &lt;!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --&gt;

| languages        =
| philosophies     = 
| religions        =
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| footnotes        =
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    <id>112</id>
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    <timestamp>2020-03-12T18:40:03Z</timestamp>
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    <text bytes="701" xml:space="preserve">{{ Template:infobox ethnic group
| group            =  &lt;!-- (defaults to {{PAGENAME}}) --&gt;
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 

| total            =  &lt;!-- total population worldwide --&gt;
| total_year       =  &lt;!-- year of total population --&gt;
| total_source     =  &lt;!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --&gt;
| total_ref        =  &lt;!-- references supporting total population --&gt;
| genealogy        = 
| regions          =  &lt;!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --&gt;

| languages        =
| philosophies     = 
| religions        =
| related_groups   = 
| footnotes        =
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    <timestamp>2020-03-12T18:48:24Z</timestamp>
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    <text bytes="692" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            =  &lt;!-- (defaults to {{PAGENAME}}) --&gt;
| native_name      = 
| native_name_lang = 
| image            = 
| image_caption    = 

| total            =  &lt;!-- total population worldwide --&gt;
| total_year       =  &lt;!-- year of total population --&gt;
| total_source     =  &lt;!-- source of total population; may be ''census'' or ''estimate'' --&gt;
| total_ref        =  &lt;!-- references supporting total population --&gt;
| genealogy        = 
| regions          =  &lt;!-- for e.g. a list of regions (countries), especially if regionN etc below not used --&gt;

| languages        =
| philosophies     = 
| religions        =
| related_groups   = 
| footnotes        = 
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  <title>Main Page</title>
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    <id>114</id>
    <parentid>14</parentid>
    <timestamp>2020-03-12T20:51:09Z</timestamp>
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      <username>Leafy838</username>
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    <comment>Replaced content with "Now defunct, please check kei.miraheze.org!"</comment>
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    <text bytes="43" xml:space="preserve">Now defunct, please check kei.miraheze.org!</text>
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